Ancient and Medieval India PDF

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA For UPSC and State Civil Services Examinations  ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA For UPSC and State Civil Services Examinations Poonam Dalal Dahiya McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited CHENNAI...

ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA For UPSC and State Civil Services Examinations  ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL INDIA For UPSC and State Civil Services Examinations Poonam Dalal Dahiya McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited CHENNAI McGraw Hill Education Offices Chennai New York St Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogotá Caracas Kuala Lumpur Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan Montreal San Juan Santiago Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto  McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited, 444/1, Sri Ekambara Naicker Industrial Estate, Alapakkam, Porur, Chennai-600116. Ancient and Medieval India Copyright © 2017, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database or retrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication. This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited. ISBN (13): 978-93-5260-673-3 ISBN (10): 93-5260-673-6 Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw Hill Education (India), from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither McGraw Hill Education (India) nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw Hill Education (India) and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ebook Creation: Versatile PreMedia Services (P) Ltd. Cover Designer: Rajesh Pandey visit us at: www.mheducation.co.in Dedicated to my late father Sh. Randhawa Singh Dalal who taught me to dream big.  PREFACE The syllabus of the General Studies for the UPSC and State Service examinations is pretty exhaustive in nature and Ancient and Medieval History has emerged as one of the important component of this syllabus. Many aspirants find history a boring factual subject that has to be crammed and is not a fun to learn. It is indeed difficult for any new aspirant to cover it comprehensively in a short span of time. The very purpose of writing this book is to break this myth and to make learning of history a joyful process. This book has a completely new approach towards study of Ancient and Medieval History. It attempts to make the learning of history simple and interesting and provides a one-stop solution to all your history needs. The book is structured in a way that it is in sync with each and every topic in the syllabus. The information is given in an interesting format to make one comfortable with history. Special Features of this Book 1. Comprehensive coverage of entire syllabus pertaining to Ancient and Medieval History demanded for UPSC, State Services and other competitive exams. 2. Inclusion of two comprehensive detachable quick revision charts each pertaining to Ancient and Medieval history to simplify the learning process. 3. In every chapter, the keywords have been highlighted so that it becomes easy for the reader to make a quick reference to important points. 4. Ample diagrams are included in the chapters to provide conceptual clarity about historic events. 5. Along with the repository of last year’s questions (both Prelims and Mains), practice questions are provided for each chapter to make students practice, assess and master the particular topic. 6. Use of simple and lucid language to cater to the needs of students of different backgrounds. The last chapter is more of an epilogue and is provided in the form of notes since it caters to certain crucial early modern India topics which are generally asked in examination. I sincerely hope that all the readers of the book will appreciate and benefit from its contents and find it useful for their preparation. Any remarks/recommendations towards improving the content and its richness will be most welcome and eagerly awaited. Your valuable suggestions will go far in enhancing this book in the future. You may reach the author at [email protected] All the very Best! Poonam Dalal Dahiya  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank a multitude of people whose lives have intersected with mine in one way or the other and inspired me to write this book. To begin with, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude for my dear husband Mr. Aseem Dahiya, who has been a source of constant inspiration and encouragement ever since I have known him and who has seen from close quarters the crests and troughs of my struggle, all the while prodding me to never give up. Without his unflinching support, I would not have been able to complete this challenging task or anything else in life. He, along with my son Vikramaditya, has given a new meaning and purpose to my life, wherein I find myself obligated to return to the society in no small measure, what I have gained from it. My gratitude is also due to my brothers Amit and Ajay who have always believed in me and motivated me to develop my notes written over the years during preparation of various exams into this work. I would also like to thank my whole family especially my in-laws, my mother, teachers, colleagues and friends who in their own unique ways have helped me to form my views on various issues as delineated in this book and without their support it would not have been possible for me to research and write this book. I am also indebted to every teacher of mine who have not only relentlessly mentored me in this endeavour but also helped me during the course of my own UPSC preparation specially Pavan Sir (of Pavan Kumar IAS Academy), Ravindran Sir (of Vajiram and Ravi), Praveen Bansal Sir (of Abhimanu IAS Study Group), Anil Narula Sir (of Anil Narula’s IAS Study Center). I am also sincerely thankful to Shri D.S. Mishra, IAS, Dr. Dinesh Arora, IAS, Shri Maheswar Dayal, IPS, Dr. Ajay Chikkara, IRS who have always supported me through this journey of mine, and have encouraged and helped me in their own ways in completing this work in time. I would also like to express my true appreciation to McGraw Hill Education, India and their entire team who gave consistent support and helped me in the creation and edition of the book. My special thanks to Mr. Tanmoy Roy Chowdhury, Ms. Shukti Mukherjee, Ms. Gargi Bhattacharya and Mr. Ankur Shankrit for their continued support all through the venture. I finally hope that this book will help the readers in a better conceptual understanding of the Ancient and Medieval History of India and help all those civil service aspirants who have fire in their eyes and who dare to dream. Poonam Dalal Dahiya  CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgements 1. Ancient India Pre-history phase Palaeolithic Age(Hunters and Food Gatherers) Mesolithic Age (Hunters and Herders) Neolithic Age (Food-Producing Stage) Chalcolithic Age / Copper-Stone Age(c. 3000−500 BCE) 2. Harappan Civilisation (c. 2600–1900 BCE)/Bronze Age Civilisation General features of the mature harappan phase Town Planning Society Economy Harappan Imports Religion Agriculture Decline Famous Harappan Sites 3. The Vedic Age (Rig Vedic and Later Vedic) (c. 1500–500 BCE) Rig vedic culture (c. 1500–1000 BCE) / early vedic civilisation Vedic Literature Social life of Rig Vedic Aryans Rig Vedic Economy Rig Vedic Religion Later vedic culture and civilisation (c. 1000-500 BCE) Later Vedic Society Later Vedic Age Economy Later Vedic Age Religion 4. The Mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic Plain (c. 600–300 BCE) Political conflicts and the pre–eminence of magadha Haryanka Dynasty (Magadha) Shishunaga Dynasty (around 413 BCE) Nanda Dynasty(First non-Kshatriya dynasty) Maurya Dynasty(321 BCE) North–west india: person and macedonian invasions Persian Impact on India Alexander’s Invasion (327−326 BCE) Effect of Alexander’s Invasion Social and material life in the age of the mahajanapadas Administrative System Legal and Social System 5. Buddhism and Jainism Causes of origin Gautama buddha and buddhism Early Buddhist Literature Life of the Buddha Doctrines of Buddhism Buddhism and Brahmanism Reasons for Spread and Popularity of Buddhism Reasons for the Decline of Buddhism Buddhist Councils Different Schools of Buddhism Vardhaman mahavira and jainism Early Jain Literature Life of Vardhamana Mahavira Doctrines of Jainism Buddhism and Jainism Spread and Influence of Jainism Different Schools of Jainism Jaina Councils Ajivikas 6. The Maurya Empire (c. 324–187 BCE) Kautilya’s Arthashastra Megasthenes’s Indica The mauryan dynasty Ashokan Inscriptions and Ashoka’s Dhamma Ashoka’s Legacy Mauryan Administration The Mauryan Society Mauryan Art and Sculpture Decline of the mauryas 7. Political and Cultural Developments during c. 200 BCE–300 CE Political history of north india Indo–Greeks/ Bactrian Greeks The Shakas/Scythians The Scytho-Parthians/Shaka-Pahlavas The Kushanas The Shaka Kshatrapas of Western India The Impact and Contribution of Contacts with Central Asia The Satavahanas Important Aspects of the Satavahanas Early historical period of South India: From Megalithic to the state polities of Chera, Cholas and Pandyas The Administration and Social life in the Three Early Kingdoms Social Structure and Organisation Crafts, Trade, and Towns in the Post Mauryan Age 8. The Guptas and the Vakatakas (c. 300–600 CE) Decline of the guptas The Vakatakas of the Deccan Various Facets of Life under the Guptas and the Vakatakas 9. Early Medieval India: The Age of Regional Configurations (c. 600–1200 CE) Period from c.600-750 ce: northern india Pushyabhutis of Thanesar Administration under Harsha The Maitrakas The Maukharies Perion from c.600-750 : southern india Deccan Far South The period from c.750−1000 ce: northern india The Pratihara dynasty The Palas of Bengal The Rashtrakutas General Overview of Life during these three kingdoms Trade and Commerce The Salama Dynasty of Assam(c. 800−1000 CE) The Eastern Gangas of the Orissa Period from c. 850-1200 ce: southern india The Cholas Administration of the Cholas Chola Village Administration Chola society and economy Chola Art and Literature Contact with South-East Asia and China. 10. Period from c. 1000 to 1200 CE: Northern India The rajput clans The Chahamanas/Chauhans The Chandellas of Bundelkhand. The Paramaras of Malwa The Chalukyas of Gujarat/The Solanki Rajputs The Tomaras The Gahadavalas of Kannauj Kingdom of kashmir and north-west Karkota Dynasty Utpala Dynasty Yashaskara Dynasty Hindu Shahi Dynasty The chedis of tripuri The senas of bengal The gangas/chodagangas of orissa Western chalukyas of kalyani/later westrn chalukyas Developements in art and architecture, and science and technology Religious movements and beliefs and development in philosophy Heterodox Schools of Indian Philosophy The islamic conquest of north india and the gangetic plains Rise And Spread Of Islam A Brief History of Islam The Age of conflict(c.1000–1200 CE) The Ghaznavids and Mahmud of Ghazni The Ghurid Dynasty and Muhammad Ghori 11. The Delhi Sultanate Slave dynasty/ ilbari/the mameluk sultans (c. 1206-1290 ce) Khalji dynasty (c. 1290-1320 ce) Administration of Alauddin Khalji Tughlaq dynasty (c.1320–1414 ce)/dynasty of qaraunah turks Saiyyad dynasty (c. 1414-51) ce Lodhi dynasty (c. 1451-1526 ce) Administration under sultanate period The Sultan Central Administration Provincial government Economy Social system Art and architecture Music Literature 12. Provincial Kingdoms of Medieval India Deccan and southern india: vijayanagar and bahmani kingdom The Vijayanagar Kingdom (c.1336–1672 CE) Sangama dynasty Administration of Vijaynagar Kingdom Army and Military Organisation Social life Economy Cultural Contributions Conflict between the Vijaynagar kingdom and Bahmani Sultanate Bahmani Administration Western india-gujarat, malwa and mewar Gujarat Malwa Mewar North india: kashmir Eastern india: jaunpur, bengal, assam, and orissa Jaunpur Bengal Assam Orissa/Odisha 13. The Mughals (c.1526–1857 CE) The afghan interlude/sur interregnum (c. 1540-1555 ce) Administrative system under the akbar Organisation of Government Central Administration Provincial Administration Land Revenue Administration Mansabdari System The Jagirdari System Religious Policy Akbar’s Navratnas Mughal Dynasty after akbar Art and Architecture during his reign: Economic and social life under the muhals Growth of Trade Growth of Administration: MansabdariSystem and the Mughal army. 14. The Later Mughals, the Marathas and Other Provincial Kingdoms The later mughals Decline of the mughals Mughal Administration Rise of regional politics and states The marathas Shivaji and Rise of Marathas Royal House of Kolhapur The Office of the Peshwa (c.1640–1818 CE) Maratha Confederacy Shivaji’s Administration Bengal Awadh Punjab Rajputs South india The State of Travancore The Rise of Mysore 15. Bhakti Movement The bhakti movement in north india Prominent Leaders of the Bhakti Movement The Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra Non Sectarian Bhakti Movement Vaishnavite Movement The Chisti Silsilah The Suhrawardi Silsilah The Naqshbandi Silsilah The Qadri Silsilah Impact of Sufism Sufism Sikh movement Importance of the bhakti movement Women in the bhakti movement 16. Coming of Europeans The portuguse The dutch The english The danes (from denmark) The french Anglo-french rivalry Cause of Ist Carnatic War Important Battles and treaty pertaining to Ist War. Cause of IInd Carnatic War Important Battles and Treaty pertaining to IInd War Cause of IIIrd Carnatic War Important Battles and treaty pertaining to IIIrd War British conquest in india Battle of Plassey (c. 1757 CE) Background of Plassey Conquest of mysore British struggle with marathas Background Anglo-sikh wars Annexation of sindh (c.1843 ce) Causes for Annexation: Charts  1 ANCIENT INDIA  PRE-HISTORY PHASE The English word ‘history’ comes from the Greek historia, meaning “inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation”. It corresponds to the study of the past and throws light on various past events of significance which shaped and evolved human experiences. History is further divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history. Events occurring before the invention of writing are considered the domain of pre- history, which is generally represented by the three stone ages. Defining proto-history is rather difficult as it has different connotations. Generally, it refers to a period between prehistory and history, during which a culture or civilisation has not yet developed writing but are mentioned in the written records of a contemporary literate civilisation. For example, the script of the Harappan civilisation remains undeciphered; however, since its existence is noted in Mesopotamian writings, it is considered a part of proto-history. Similarly, the Vedic civilisation from c. 1500–600 BCE had an oral literary tradition, though they did not take to literary writing — they can thus be considered a part of proto-history as well. Archaeologists consider Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures to be a part of proto- history. The study of the past after the invention of writing and the study of literate societies based on the written and archaeological sources constitutes history. The history and identity of human settlements in India go back to prehistoric times. The credit for doing an early extensive study of Indian pre-history go to Robert Bruce Foote, who discovered what was probably the first palaeolithic tool discovered in India — the Pallavaram handaxe. Later, he discovered a large number of pre-historic sites in South India. The contribution of Sir Mortimer Wheeler is equally significant, as his efforts greatly contributed towards our knowledge of the pre-historical cultures of India and their sequence. On the basis of geological age, the type and technology of stone tools, and subsistence base, the Indian Stone Age is classified primarily into three types: Indian Stone Age*: Old stone Age, Palaeolithic Age (5,00,000−10,000 BCE) Late Stone Age, Mesolithic Age (10,000−6000 BCE) New Stone Age, Neolithic Age (6,000−1000 BCE) *A general time range is specified as there is a great deal of variation in the dates for different sites. Palaeolithic Age (Hunters and Food Gatherers) The Palaeolithic Age is the earliest period of the Stone Age, which developed in the Pleistocene period or the Ice Age. It was spread in practically all parts of India except the alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganga. The Palaeolithic man of India are said to have belonged to the Negrito race and lived in caves and rock shelters. They were food gathering people who lived on hunting and gathering wild fruits and vegetables. They had no knowledge of agriculture, house building, pottery, or any metal. It was only in later stages that they attained the knowledge of fire. Man, during this period, used tools of unpolished, undressed rough stones — mainly hand axes, cleavers, choppers, blades, burin, and scrapers. Since the stone tools were made of a hard rock called ‘quartzite’, Palaeolithic men are therefore also called ‘Quartzite men’ in India.  Palaeolithic Tools The Palaeolithic Age is divided into three phases according to the nature of stone tools used. They are: Early or lower Middle Late or Upper Palaeolithic Palaeolithic Palaeolithic Use of hand axes, Use of stone Parallel-sided blades, choppers, and cleavers, tools made of burins, and some mainly for chopping, flakes, mainly instances of bone tools. digging, and skinning. scrapers, borers, points, and bladelike tools. Found in Soan and Found in Soan, Found in Andhra Sohan river valley Narmada and Pradesh, Karnataka, (now in Pakistan), Tungabhadra Maharashtra, Central MP, Kashmir, Thar Desert river valleys, Southern UP and (Didwana, Rajasthan), Potwar plateau Chhotanagpur Plateau. Hiran Valley (Gujarat), (between Indus Bone tools found only at rockshelters of and Jhelum), cave sites of Kurnool and Bhimbetka (MP), and Sanghao Cave Muchchatla Chintamani Belan Valley Mirzapur (near peshawar, Gavi in Andhra Pradesh (UP) Pakistan). 5,00,000 BCE−50,000 50,000 BCE 40,000 BCE−10,000 BCE BCE −40,000 BCE Covers the greater part Established only Homo sapiens first of the Ice Age. in 1960 by H.D. appeared at the end of Sankalia and was this phase. Coincided named Nevasan with the last phase of the industry after the Ice Age, when the site of Nevasa climate became (Maharastra). comparatively warm and less humid. Mesolithic Age (Hunters and Herders) A Variety of Stone Tools The Mesolithic Age represents the intermediate stage in Stone Age Culture. Both Mesolithic and Neolithic Cultures belong to the Holocene era (which succeeded the Pleistocene era around 10,000 years ago). The Mesolithic man lived on hunting, fishing, food gathering, and in later stages, also domesticated animals. One of the key aspects of the Mesolithic Age was the reduction in size of well-established tool types. The characteristic tools of this age were microliths (miniature stone tools usually made of crypto-crystalline silica, chalcedony, or chert, both of geometrical and non-geometrical shapes). They were not only used as tools in themselves but also to make composite tools, spearheads, arrowheads, and sickles after hafting them on wooden or bone handles. Some of the other aspects of the Mesolithic Age are: Pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, but it is present at Langhnaj in Gujarat and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (UP). The last phase of this age saw the beginning of plant cultivation. The Mesolithic era initiated rock art in pre-history. In 1867, the first rock paintings in India were discovered at Sohagighat (Kaimur Hills, UP). Now, over 150 Mesolithic rock art sites have been discovered across India, with rich concentration in Central India such as the Bhimbetka Caves, Kharwar, Jaora, and Kathotia (M.P.), Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Orissa), Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala). Animals dominate the scenes at most Mesolithic rock art sites. However, no snakes are depicted in Mesolithic Paintings.  Bhimbetka Cave Painting - Burials and rock paintings give us ideas about the development of religious practices and also reflect the division of labour on the basis of gender. Important Mesolithic sites are: Bagor, Rajasthan on River Kothari is one of the largest and best documented Mesolithic sites in India. Chhotanagpur Region, Central India. Both Adamgarh, M.P. and Bagor provide the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals South of River Krishna, Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu Birbhanpur in West Bengal Sarai Nahar Rai, near Allahabad, Pratapgarh area Mahadaha, U.P., where bone artifacts are found, including arrowheads and bone ornaments. Neolithic Age (Food-Producing Stage) In northern India, the Neolithic age emerged around c.8000−6000 BCE. At some places in south and eastern India, it is as late as 1000 BCE. Its significance in pre-history can be gauged by the fact that V. Gordon Childe termed the Neolithic phase as Neolithic Revolution. It introduced a lot of innovations such as: Neolithic Implements  (a) Advent of food production: The Neolithic man cultivated land and grew fruits & corn like ragi and horse gram (kulathi). He domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats. (b) Innovations in technology: The Neolithic man innovated in the production of stone tools, producing implements such as polished, pecked, and ground stone tools. They depended on polished stones other than quartzite for making tools. The use of celts was especially important for ground and polished handaxes. Based on the types of axes used, three important areas of Neolithic Settlements can be identified: (i) North-Western: Rectangular axes with curved cutting edge. (ii) North-Eastern: Polished stone axes with rectangular butt, has occasional shouldered hoes. (iii) Southern: Axes with oval sides and pointed butt. (c) Invention of pottery: The Neolithic era communities first made pottery by hand and then with the help of the potter’s wheel. Their pottery included black burnished ware, grey ware, and mat-impressed ware. It can therefore be said that pottery on a large-scale appeared in this phase. (d) Emergence of self-sufficient village communities: In the later phases of the Neolithic era, people led a more settled life. They lived in circular and rectangular houses made of mud and reed. They also knew how to make boats and could spin cotton and wool and weave cloth. (e) Division of labour based on sex and age: As society was progressing,the need for additional labour was recognised and thus labour was procured from other non kin groups too. Some of the important excavated Neolithic Sites along with their unique aspects are as follows: – Burzahom (unique rectangular chopper, domestic dogs buried with their masters in graves) and Gufkraal in Jammu and Kashmir (famous for pit dwelling, stone tools, and graveyards located within households) – Maski, Brahmagiri, Piklihal (proof of cattle herding), Budihal (community food preparation and feasting), and Tekkalakota in  Karnataka – Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh – Garo Hills in Meghalaya, Chirand in Bihar (considerable use of bone implements, especially those made of antlers) – Saraikhola, near Taxila on Potwar plateau, Amri, Kotdiji and Mehrgarh (the earliest Neolithic site known as the Breadbasket of Baluchistan, a province of Pakistan) – Koldihwa, in Belan valley (unique in terms of the presence of a three-fold Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron Age settlements), Koldihwa and Mahagara, south of Allahabad (many strata of circular huts along with crude hand-made pottery; earliest evidence of rice cultivation in the world) – Chopani – Mando, Belan valley (earliest evidence of use of pottery) – Belan Valley, on the northern spurs of the Vindhyas, and the middle part of the Narmada valley (evidence of all the three phases of Paleolithic settlement, followed by Mesolithic and Neolithic settlements) Chalcolithic Age / Copper-Stone Age (c. 3000−500 BCE) The Chalcolithic age marked the emergence of the use of metal along with stone tools. The first metal to be used was copper, though they also occasionally used bronze. Technologically, the Chalcolithic stage largely applies to the settlements of pre-Harappans, but in various parts of country, it appears after the end of the bronze Harappa culture. Some Chalcolithic cultures are contemporary of Harappan culture and some of pre-Harappan cultures, though it is possible to say that most Chalcolithic cultures are post-Harappan. Some prominent sites of pre- Harappan Chalcolithic culture are Ganeshwar, near the Khetri Mines of Rajasthan, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Banawali in Haryana, Kot Diji in Sindh (Pakistan). Chalcolithic people domesticated cows, sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes, and hunted deer. They ate beef but did not like pork and were also not acquainted with horses. It is rather interesting to note that the domesticated animals were slaughtered for food and not milked for dairy products (this practice still continues among the (Gond people of Bastar). The people of the Chalcolithic phase produced wheat and rice as their staple, bajra, several pulses such as lentil, black gram, green gram, and grass pea, while those living in eastern regions lived on fish and rice. They practiced more slash-burn or jhum cultivation. However, neither the plough nor the hoe has been found at any site of this period. They used different types of pottery, of which black and red pottery was the most popular. This was made using the potter’s wheel and was painted with white line design. Equally interesting is the fact that female potters did not use the potter’s wheel, only men did. Other distinguishing features of people in the Chalcolithic age are as follows: – They were not acquainted with burnt brick, and generally lived in thatched houses made of mud bricks. There economy was a village-based economy. – Chalcolithic-era people did not know the use of writing. – Their villages were small, with huts close to each other. – Chalcolithic age people cooked their food. – Small clay images of earth goddesses have been found from Chalcolithic sites. It is thus possible to say that they venerated the Mother Goddess. – Chalcolithic people were fond of ornaments and decoration. The women wore ornaments of shell and bone and carried finely worked combs in their hair. – The bull was probably the symbol of their religious cult (based on stylised bull terracottas of Malwa and Rajasthan). – The Chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths. They knew the art of copper-smelting and were good stone workers as well. – They manufactured beads of semi-precious stones such as carnelian, steatite, and quartz crystal. – They knew spinning and weaving. – Chalcolithic settlements have been found in south-eastern Rajasthan, western M.P. western Maharashtra, as well as other  parts of southern and eastern India. There are definite regional differences in terms of cereals produced and consumed, pottery made, and so on. For instance, eastern India produced rice, whereas western India cultivated barley and wheat. In Maharashtra, the dead were buried in the north-south direction, whereas in southern India they were buried in the east-west direction. In eastern India, fractional burial was practiced. – Infant mortality was very high among Chalcolithic people, as evident from the burial of a large number of children in western Maharashtra. – One can note the beginnings of social inequalities in Chalcolithic societies, as chiefs who lived in rectangular houses dominated others who lived in round huts. Some of the important excavated Chalcolithic Sites along with their unique aspects are as follows: – Ahar (smelting and metallurgy, stone houses) and Gilund (occasional use of burnt bricks) in Banas Valley, Rajasthan  Remains Found at Ahar Site Rajasthan (Chalcolithic) – Nevasa, Jorwe (non-Harappan culture), Navdatoli (cultivated almost all foodgrains), Daimabad (largest Jorwe culture site in the Godavari valley, famous for the recovery of bronze goods), Songaon, Inamgaon (large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses) and Nasik, Maharashtra – Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur in Bihar, Mahishdal in West Bengal – Kayatha (mud-plastered floors, pre-Harappan elements in pottery), Malwa (richest Chalcolithic ceramics, spindle whorls, non-Harappan culture), Eran, M.P. (non- Harappan culture) Chalcolithic Harappan Primarily rural Primarily urban Used mostly Used bronze copper Lived near hilly Attained urbanisation on the basis of produce land or rivers from flood plains in Indus valley Questions from last year’s Mains (1) Mesolithic rock cut architecture of India not only reflects the cultural life of the times but also a fine aesthetic sense comparable to modern painting. Critically evaluate this comment. (2015) Practice Questions - Prelims 1. Match the following: Column A Column B i. Palaeolithic Age A. Copper ii. Neolithic Age B. Discovery of Fire iii. Chalcolithic Age C. Microliths iv. Mesolithic Age D. Tools for harvesting crops (a) i. A ii. C iii. D iv. B (b) i. C ii. A iii. D iv. B (c) i. B ii. D iii. A iv. C (d) i. D ii. C iii. A iv. B 2. Consider the following statements and identify which are specific to the Neolithic period. i. Domestication of animals and growing of wild varieties of crops ii. People used copper and bronze to make a lot of tools  Making of specialised tools by flaking stones, which were iii. pointed in one end (a) 1 only (b) 1, 2, 3 (c) 1, 3 only (d) 1, 2 only 3. Match the historical period and archaeological sites. Period Site i. Palaeolithic A. Bhimbetka ii. Mesolithic B. Belan iii. Neolithic C. Navdatoli iv. Chalcolithic D. Mehargarh (a) i. A ii C iii. D iv B (b) i. C ii. A iii. D iv. B (c) i. B ii. A iii. D iv. C (d) i. D ii. C iii. A iv. B 4. Which of the following are characteristic of the Neolithic age? i. Use of very finely flaked small stone stools, blades, and burins ii. Domestication of cattle, horses, and other farm animals iii. Painting and decorating pottery (a) i, ii, iii, only (b) i, ii only (c) ii, iii, only (d) None of the above 5. Consider the following statements and choose the appropriate one. i. Technologically, the Chalcolithic stage refers to pre- Harappans but in various parts of the country it appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture ii. All Chalcolithic cultures are not necessarily pre-Harappan cultures, but all pre-Harappan cultures are necessarily  Chalcolithic cultures iii. All Chalcolithic cultures are necessarily pre-Harappan cultures, but pre-Harappan cultures are not necessarily Chalcolithic cultures (a) i only (b) i, iii only (c) i, ii, iii (d) i, ii only 6. Which of the following statements is correct regarding pre- historic art? (a) Palaeolithic and Mesolithic people practised painting (b) Pre-historic art do not appear at the Bhimbetka caves (c) Many figures regarding the solar system were painted (d) The paintings depict the religious beliefs of the people 7. Which was the first metal used by man? (a) Copper (b) Silver (c) Bronze (d) Iron 8. With which of the following periods do we associate the ‘microlith’ implements? (a) Palaeolithic (b) Chalcolithic (c) Neolithic (d) Mesolithic 9. With which period do we associate the ‘megaliths’? (a) Pleistocene (b) Neolithic-Chalcolithic (c) Mesolithic (d) None of the above 10. What was the earliest metal tool used for? (a) Pot-making  (b) House-building (c) Clearing jungles (d) Making wheels 11. The first animals to be domesticated during Stone Age were: (a) Dogs, goat, sheep (b) Dogs, horses, goat (c) Horses, sheep, goat (d) Sheep, elephant, dog 12. Nomadic man started settling in: (a) Palaeolithic Age (b) Mesolithic Age (c) Neolithic Age (d) Chalcolithic Age 13. Man moved from food-gathering to food-producing in the: (a) Palaeolithic Age (b) Mesolithic Age (c) Chalcolithic Age (d) Neolithic Age 14. The greatest innovation of man in the Palaeolithic age was (a) Metal implements (b) Potter’s wheel (c) Discovery of fire (d) Spinning and weaving 15. During the Chalcolithic age, the only metal known to man was: (a) Iron (b) Gold (c) Copper (d) Silver 16. Which one of the following statements is not correct? (a) The Chalcolithic man in India were acquainted with burnt bricks (b) Palaeolithic man in the later stages knew about fire  (c) Bhimbetka Caves are a treasure house of pre-historic paintings (d) Man came to practice agriculture in Neolithic era. 17. Sites Age i. Ahar and Gilund A. Chalcolithic ii. Mohenjodaro B. Harappa iii. Burzahom C. Neolithic iv. Bagor D. Mesolithic a) i - A ii C iii B iv D (b) i - C ii A iii D iv B (c) i- A ii B iii C iv D (d) i - D ii C iii - A iv B 18. Consider the following statements regarding the economy of the Neolithic period: i. The economy of the early Neolithic cultures was based on agriculture and animal domestication ii. The Neolithic man knew about iron Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (a) Only i (b) Both i and ii (c) Only ii (d) None of the above 19. Consider the following statements regarding Chalcolithic people: i. Chalcolithic communities traded and exchanged materials with other contemporary communities ii. Large settlements like Ahar, Gilund, Navdatoli, Eran, Rangpur, Daimabad, and Inamgaon served as major centres of trade and exchange iii. Ahar people, settled close to the copper source, supplied copper tools and objects to other contemporary communities in Malwa and Gujarat  Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (a) Only i (b) i and ii (c) ii and iii (d) All of the above 20. Consider the following statements regarding the status of technology during the Chalcolithic period: i. The Chalcolithic people were expert coppersmiths and had made considerable progress in metal technology ii. The painted pottery was well made. Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (a) Only i (b) i and ii (c) Only ii (d) None of the above 21. Consider the following statements regarding the Chalcolithic cultures in India: i. Some of the Chalcolithic cultures were contemporary with the Harappan culture and others were post-Harappan ii. The Chalcolithic culture is characterised by painted pottery, usually red and black iii. It was urban as compared to rural Harappan Which of the following statement(s) is/are correct? (a) Only i (b) i and ii (c) i and iii (d) All of the above 22. Which of the following pairs is incorrectly matched? i. Lower Palaeolithic−Handaxe and cleaver industries ii. Middle Palaeolithic−Tools made on flakes iii. Upper Palaeolithic−Tools made on blades and burins. (a) Only i  (b) Only i and ii (c) All of the above (d) None of the above 23. Consider the following statements regarding tools and technology of the middle Palaeolithic culture: i. The middle Palaeolithic period is characterised basically by the flakes obtained by striking them out from pebbles or cobbles ii. The tools included various kinds of scrapers, borers, and knives Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct? (a) Only i (b) i and ii (c) Only ii (d) None 24. Which of the following archaeological sites have Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic remains? (a) Belan valley (b) Bhimbetka (c) Nevasa (d) Pushkar Answers 1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (c) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (b) 24. (a) Practice Questions - Mains 1. Explain the different phases of the Stone Age, specifying their characteristic features and prominent sites related to each. 2. Why does the Neolithic Age hold an unique place in the evolution of mankind? Elaborate with five examples. 3. “Technologically, the Chalcolithic phase refers to pre-Harappan cultures, but in various parts of the country, the Chalcolithic phase appears after the end of bronze Harappa culture.” Does this statement hold any authenticity? Specify with reasonsa.  2 HARAPPAN CIVILISATION (c. 2600–1900 BCE)/BRONZE AGE CIVILISATION The Harappan civilisation was the first urban civilisation in South Asia, contemporaneous with the civilisations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Of the three aforementioned civilisations, the Harappan civilisation occupied most area (about 8,00,000 sq km). Earlier historians had called this civilisation the Indus Valley Civilisation, but since then, major settlements have been excavated in the Ghaggar-Hakra belt that spread far beyond the Indus region. Harappa, as the first archaeological site to be discovered, therefore gives its name to the entire civilisation. It forms a part of the proto-history of India, and belongs to the Bronze Age. While it is classified as a civilisation that is older than Chalcolithic civilisations, in many ways it was far more developed than settlements in the Chalcolithic Age. The Harappan civilisation can be classified in three phases*: (i) The Early/Pre-Harappan phase (c. 3200−2600 ) BCE (ii) Mature Harappan phase (c. 2600−1900 ) BCE (iii) Late Harappan phase (c. 1900−1300 ) BCE *A general time range is specified as there is a great deal of variation in the dates for different phases. There exists an undeniable cultural continuity among all the phases of the Harappan civilisation, yet they differ slightly from each other. The Early Harappan phase, known as the Regionalisation Era, was the formative, proto-urban phase of the Harappan civilisation. It is related to the Hakra phase of settlements, and the settlements in this period are marked by their fortification, a fairly high level of expertise in specialised crafts such as stone-working, bead-making, and metal- crafting, the use of wheeled transport, and the existence of trade networks. Most raw materials except jade, which has not been found in early Harappan settlements, are similar to the ones used in the mature Harappan phase. However, it did not have the large cities that defined the mature Harappan phase, neither did it have as much expertise in craft specialisation. Some of the early Harappan archaeological sites are Padri in Gujarat, Kalibangan in Rajasthan, Dholavira in Kutch, Harappa in West Punjab, Balakot, Amri, and Bhirrana in Haryana, Kot Diji and Gumla. It is noteworthy to add that there are no early Harappan sites in the active Indus plain. The Mature Harappan phase, or the Integration Era, was the urban phase of the Harappan civilisation, which shows the characteristics of a full-fledged civilisation. It is pertinent to note that the unqualified term, ‘Harappan Culture’ or ‘Harappan Civilisation’, primarily refers to this mature urban phase. It is equally important is to understand the fact that the use of term ‘Harappan Culture’ or ‘Harappan Civilisation’ for all the excavated sites does not mean that all the other sites are identical to Harappa. It only pertains to the fact that the other sites have the same basic set of Harappan material traits, such as the typical red and black pottery, terracotta figurines, standardised brick size in 1:2:4 ratio, and so on. The last phase of the Harappan civilisation, that is to say, the Late Harappan phase or the Localisation Era, was the post-urban phase defined by a decline in the cities. This is the final period in the Harappan civilisation and refers to the fragmentation of the culture of the Integration Era. The Late Harappan phase comprises five geographical zones each having distinct phases — the West Punjab Phase (Cemetery- H Culture), the East Punjab Phase, the Jhukar Phase, the Rangpur Phase, and the Ganga Yamuna Doab Phase. Late Harappan settlements were small compared to mature Harappan ones. The transition from the mature phase does not show any sudden discontinuity as such, but there is a gradual change in seals, pottery confined writing, in the frequency of cubical weights, and so on. The Late Harappan settlements were also more in number, but they were smaller and more rural, though marked by a diverse agricultural base. Important Jhukar sites are Jhukar, Chanhudaro, and Amri. Rangpur Phase sites are in Kutch, Saurashtra and mainland Gujarat. GENERAL FEATURES OF THE  MATURE HARAPPAN PHASE Archaeological evidence reveals a great deal about the Harappan civilisation, which is marked by both cultural homogeneity as well as diversity. There is still no totally accepted theory on the origin of Harappan culture but generally it is believed to have either emerged from pre-Harappan/indigenous village culture (which may be the more reasonable view), or, as argued by diffusionist theorists, owes its origin to the Mesopotamian Civilisation. The area occupied by the Harappan civilisation was triangular in shape and was largest among the three ancient urban civilisations, the other two being ancient Egypt and Mesopotamaia (present day Iraq). It roughly covers modern day Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, and Pakistan. Town Planning Harappan civilisation is known for its urban outlook and sophisticated sense of civic planning and organisation. In most cases the Harappan city was divided into two parts: Citadel/Raised Part – This part occupied a smaller area, and was frequently situated to the west of the city. Rulers of the city lived here. It also contained public buildings, granaries, and important workshops. Lower Part – The common citizenry lived and carried on their professional lives in this part of the city. City planning roughly followed a grid pattern and streets ran from north and cut at right angles. Distinguishing aspects of Harappan town planning are as follows: – The streets were wide, the main street being ten metres wide and dividing the town into rectangular and square blocks. – There were lamp-posts at intervals. They used burnt bricks of good quality and the unique feature of this brick was its identical ratio of 1:2:4 in terms of thickness:width:length across all Harappan structures. Equally striking was the uniformity in the average size of bricks — 7 × 14 × 28 cm3 for houses and 10 × 20 × 40 cm for city walls. – They had an excellent drainage system — drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum and covered with large brick slabs for easy cleaning. – Houses were often of two or more storeys, though varied in size but quite monotonous. No window faced the streets and the houses had tiled bathrooms. Some houses had their own wells. Society The Harappan society was an urban society, comprising mostly of the middle classes. The houses excavated suggest at least three distinct social groups: Ruled, rich merchants and poor labourers who lived in the lower part of the city. However, there is still no clear idea among historians about the nature of inheritance in Harappan society. Other characteristic features of the Harappan society were:  The Harappans were great experts in the use of the potter’s wheel but were poor in artistic works of stone. Primarily red black pottery (red ware pottery painted with black designs, usually that of trees and circles) was popular. Some of these pots were used for storing grain or water, while some perforated pots were probably used for brewing fermented alcoholic beverages. A lot of terracotta has been found at many sites, including figurines of animals such as bulls, buffaloes, dogs, monkeys, toy carts, and humans. Terracotta bangles have also been found. It is important to note that more female figurines have been uncovered in comparison to male figurines. The Harappans refined the art of bead-making, and jewellery excavated includes gold and silver jewellery, including necklaces, bracelets, pendants, earrings, brooches. At Allahdino (near Karachi), a lot of necklaces made of gold, silver, carnelian and semi-precious stones have been found.  Copper, bronze, silver, and gold were metals known and used by Harappans, but iron was not. They were also good at metallurgy and producing alloys. The craftsmen used to both make artifacts out of pure copper as well as bronze such as spears, knives, short swords, mirrors, axes, needles, rings, and bangles. It is rather interesting that the number of pure copper artifacts was far greater than alloyed bronze ones, but it does not mean technological backwardness rather points towards cultural preference in all likelihood. Harappan people generally wore garments of cotton / wool. The Harappans relished non-vegetarian food. Fish-eating was common. Milk and curd was also consumed. The Harappan societies of Sindh and Punjab largely consumed wheat and barley while those of Rangpur and Surkotda consumed rice and millets. The Harappan script was pictographic and logosyllabic (each symbol stood for a word/syllable). Harappan writing was boustrophedon, that is to say, right to left and left to right in alternate lines. The Harappan script has not been deciphered so far. The evidence of a common script however points to great cultural integration, and its virtual disappearance by c.1700 BCE hints at the lack of sufficient downward percolation of writing. Economy The inferences about Harappan Economy have been derived from its flourishing trade relations with its contemporary Mesopotamian and Persian civilisations. The Mesopotamians called the Indus Region ‘Meluhha’. The Mesopotamian texts speak of three intermediate trading stations called Dilmun (probably Bahrain on Persian Gulf), Makan (probably the Makran coast, Oman) and, Meluhha. Seals hold a special significance in the Harappan context. Every merchant probably had a seal bearing an emblem, often of a religions character and a name / brief description on one side. The standard Harappa seal was a square / oblong plaque made of steatite stone. Though its primary purpose is inferred to mark the ownership of property, they may also have served as amulets. The key aspects of Harappan trade networks and economy are as follows: – They carried out internal and external trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and trade was conducted by means of barter. Inland transport primarily employed bullock carts. Seals – Harappans seals have been found in Mesopotamian cities like Susa and Ur. In Nippur, a seal has been found bearing Harappan script and a unicorn. Recently, some ancient sites in the Persian Gulf like Failaka and Bahrain have also yielded Harappan seals. – In Mohenjo-Daro, three cylinder seals of the Mesopotamian type have been found, which underlines their trading relations. – In Lothal, a button seal has been found. – There were bead-making factories at Chanhudaro and Lothal. The products of these factories were items of export. – A dockyard has been exacavated in Lothal and sea ports have been found at Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot.  – A remarkable aspect of the Harappan Culture was its standardisation and accuracy in the context of weights and measures. Weights followed a binary system in the lower denominations — 1, 2, 8, 16, 32 to 64, and then in decimal multiples of 160 like 160, 320, 640, 1600, 3200, and so on. – Weights were made of chert, limestone, and steatite and were generally cubical in shape. – Measures of length were based on the foot (37.6 cm) the cubit (51.8 to 53.3 cm). A shell scale has been found at Mohenjo- Daro, a shell object probably used to measure angles has been found at Saurashtra, and an ivory scale has been discovered at Lothal. Harappan Imports Metals Source Region Gold Afghanistan, Iran, Kolar (South India) Copper Khetri (Rajasthan), Baluchistan Tin Afghanistan, Iran Lapis lazuli Afghanistan Jade Pamir Turquoise Khorasan Steatite Tapi Chahya (Iran) Bitumin Baluchistan, Mesopotamia Lead South India  Trade Routes of Indus Valley Religion Harappan civilisation is considered as a secular society as not a single structure qualifying as temple has been found. Sacred ritual spots included the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro, where the elite in all likelihood undertook ritual activity that included ceremonial bathing. Idolatry was practiced. The Harappan people generally worshipped: Mother goddess Pashupati Mahadeva or proto-Shiva (mostly an upper class  preference, seals depict him in a yogic posture) Pashupati Shiva Lingam (phallus) and yoni worship (cult of fertility)  Fertility Goddess Pipal tree Humped Bull Birds (dove and pigeon) One-horned unicorn (may in fact be the rhinocerous) Other key inferences about the Harappan Religious practices are as follows: – Fire altars have been found in Kalibangan and Lothal. – The seal of Pashupati Mahadeva is surrounded by an elephant, a tiger, a rhino, a buffalo, and a deer, and it is likely that these animals were also worshipped.  – Dead bodies were placed in a north-south direction and were generally accompanied by objects including food, pottery, ornaments, and tools. These items were not as expensive in comparison to those in contemporary Mesopotamian or Egyptian cultures. – Used three methods of burial: Complete burial Fractional burials (where the bones were gathered and buried after exposure of the body to birds and beasts) Cremation followed by burial of the ashes – In Harappa, coffins containing bodies have been found. – In Kalibangan, small circular pits containing large urns and pottery have been found. Furthermore, a triangular terracotta cake has been discovered, which has a horned deity on one side and an animal being dragged by a human on the end of a rope on the other, pointing towards animal sacrifice in all likelihood. – At Lothal, a pair of male and female skeletons have been discovered together. Agriculture The Harappan civilisation was the earliest known civilisation to produce cotton. Known as ‘Sindon’ by the Greeks as from Sindh. In the Indus plain, people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April, before the advent of the next flood. They produced sufficient food grains to feed themselves and the surplus food grains was stored in granaries. The characteristic features pertaining to the agricultural practices of the Harappans are mentioned below: The Harappans grew wheat (especially in Mehrgarh), barley, horse gram, peas, melon, watermelon, sesame, dates, millets, grapes, henna (mehndi), garlic, mustard, rice (Lothal). They also exploited riverine and marine resources wherever possible. For example, molluscs were an important protein-rich food element in the coastal sites of Gujarat people.  The Harappans domesticated animals on a large scale. Besides cattle (oxen, buffaloes, goats, humped bulls, sheep, pigs, asses, camels), cats and dogs were also domesticated. Horse wasn’t regular used but the Harappans were well acquainted with the elephant and the rhinoceros. It is pertinent to note that Harappan culture was not horse-centred. Tigers were often represented in figurines but leopards were rare. On different pottery paintings one can easily find rabbits, peacocks, ducks, pigeons, wild fowl and monkeys. Ploughed fields, possibly with the help of wooden ploughs, have been discovered at Kalibangan. Terracotta models of plough have been found at Banawali and Bahawalpur. Remains of horses at Surkotda and dogs with men in graves at Ropar have been discovered. Decline The Harappan decline is roughly dated around 1900 BCE, but no archaeological evidence accurately provides an explanation for the de- urbanisation. The Mature phase was followed by the late Harappan phase. Possible theories of decline of the Harappan Civilisation are as follows: Cause Historian Aryan Invasion Wheeler, Gordon Ecological disturbance Fairchild Change in River course Dales, M.S. Vatsa, H.T. Lambrick Low Rainfall Stein Flood Macay, S.R. Rao Drying of Ghaghar and Increasing D.P. Aggarwal and Sood Aridity Earthquake Raikes and Dales Natural Calamities K.A.R. Kennedy  Famous Harappan Sites Site State River Excavator Specialty Harappa Pakistan Ravi Dayaram - Two rows of (Punjab) Sahini six granaries (1921) - Evidence of coffin burial and cemetery ‘H’ culture - Single room barracks - Two red stone idols of a dancing girl and naked bust of male, female genitalia. - Evidence of direct trade Interaction with Mesopotamia. - Post- cremation burials more numerous. Mohenjo- Pakistan Indus R. D. Daro (Sindh) Banerji - Multi - “Mound of (1922) pillared the dead” E. Makay, assembly Hall Kashinath - Great Bath Dixit, Sir public venue) John - College of Marshall Priests.  (1930) - Large granary - Piece of woven cotton cloth - Superficial evidence of Horse - Bronze dancing girl - Violent death of some inhabitants (discovery of human skeletons together) - Seal representing Mother Goddess, Pashupati, bearded man and a woman to be sacrified. - Evidence of ship/big boat - Bangles of clay Lothal Gujarat Bhogava and S.R. Rao - Dockyard (Ahmedabad Sabarmati (1957) - Important sea District, at river trade Centre the head of confluence and bead- the Gulf of making Cambay) factory - Town not divided into two sectors - City divided into six sectors and each section was built on a wide platform of unique brick - Remains of rice husks - Houses with entrances on the main street (houses of all other sites had side entries) - Painting on a jar resembling the story of the cunning fox in Panchatantra - Evidence of double burial (male and female together). - Brick-built tank-like structure - Seal from  Mesopotamia found here - Ivory scale found here - Terracota model of ship has been found - The lower part of the city is walled - Fire altars Kalibangan Rajasthan Ghaggar Amlanand - Ploughed “Black (Ganganagar) Ghosh field Bangles” (1953) - Fire altars Dr. B. B. showing Lal and B. practice of K. Thapar cult of (1961) sacrifice - Remains of massive brick wall around both citadel and lower town - Bones of camel - Not as well- planned and organised as Mohenjo- Daro, did not even have a drainage system  - Burials in circular and rectangular grave - Provides evidence of pre- Harappan civilisation at lower layer of excavation and mature Harappan at upper layer of excavation - Decorative bricks used in flooring only at this site Chanhu- Pakistan Indus N.G. Remains of Daro (Sindh), near Mazumdar both pre- Mohenjo- (1931) and Harappan and Daro E. Makay Mature Harappan culture. Bead factory site as lots of beads, seals, ornaments unearthed Residents were good craftsmen. No fortified structure  Only Harappan city without a citadel - Evidence of Human sacrifice - Clay model of four- wheeler - Bronze model of roofed chariot Rangpur Gujarat Madar River M.S. Vatsa - Remains of (Near ( 1931) both pre- Lothal) S.R. Rao Harappan and (1953-54) Mature Harappan culture - Flakes - Yellow and grey color pots of pre- Harappan people. Banawali Haryana Rangoi R.S. Bist - Centre of pre- (Hisar) (1973–74) Harappan, Mature Harappan as well as Late Harappan civilisation - High quality barley - Ceramics,  steatite seal - Fire altars - Clay model of plough - Seals found only in lower town and not in citadel Alamgirpur Meerut (UP) Hindon Y.D. - Late- Sharma Harappan (1958) culture - Impression of cloth on a trough - Pottery and beads Koti-Diji Sindh Sindh Ghurey - Pre- (Pakistan) (1835) Harappan site Fazal - House made Ahmed of stone (1955) - City destroyed by force Amri Sindh Sindh Ghurey - Pre-Harappan (Pakistan) (1835) settlement Fazal - Transitional Ahmed culture (1955) between pre- and post- Harappan culture - Actual remains of rhinoceros, trace of  jhangar culture in Late Harappan and fire altars. Ropar Punjab Sutlej Y.D. - Cemetery, (India) Sharma seal, earthen (1955–56) pot. - Buildings mainly of stone and soil. - Evidence of burying dog below human. Surkotada Gujarat J.P. Joshi - Bones of (Bhuj) (1964) horse and graveyard. Suktagendor Sindh Dasht/Dashak A Stein, – Ash filled (Pakistan) River George pot, copper Baluchistan Dales axe, earthen bangles & pottery – Originally a port but later cut off from sea due to coastal uplift – Had trade links with Babylon. Dholavira Gujarat J.P. Joshi – Giant water (1990–91) reservoir – Unique water harvesting  System. – An Inscription comprising ten large sized signs of the Harappan script similar to a signboard. – Shows all three phases of Harappan Culture. – Large-scale use of sandstone along with mud brick. Rakhigarhi Haryana – Over 350 (Near hectares with Hisar), new finds of Bhirrana two (Fatehgarh) additional mounds, making it the largest Indus Valley – Civilisation site and town in the world. – Shows all three phases of Harappan Culture.  – At Bhirrana fragmented artefact of a thick, sturdy red ware with an incised female figure has been found, with a pose similar to the bronze Mohenjo- Daro ‘dancing girl’. Harappan Egyptian/Mesopotamian (1) Planned towns with (1) Towns show a haphazard growth. chess board system, excellent drainage system. (2) Rectangular houses with (2) Such town planning absent. brick-lined bathrooms and wells together with their stairways are found in all Harappan cities. (3) Produced their own (3) No such unique aspect. characteristic pottery and seals. (4) Invented their own (4) Mesopotamia has cuneiform script typical script, which and the Egyptian script is known as bears no resemblance to hieroglyphics. Both scripts have the Egyptian and been deciphered, which tell us a lot Mesopotamian scripts. about the civilisations.  (5) Script mostly on seals. (5) Mesopotamians pressed letters onto moist clay tablets while Egyptians wrote on papyrus sheets made of reeds. (6) No signs of existence (6) Continued to exist even after 1900 after 1900 BCE. BCE. (7) Spread over awider area. (7) Less area as compared to Harappa. Post-Urban Phase of Harappan Culture/Late Harappan Phase (c.1900 BCE–1300 BCE) The Mature Harappan phase was followed by the Late Harappan phase, which was marked by the decline of urban life and the diversification of agriculture. The stylistic homogeneity of Harappan civilisation disappeared and the post-Harappan stage was marked by sharp stylistic diversity. There was a complex interplay of change and continuity. Elements of urbanism like seals, specialised crafts, cities, long distance trade, and so on, declined but did not completely disappear. Some of the few urban centres surviving in the Late Harappan were Kudwala in Cholistan, Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Daimabad. A key development in this phase was the beginning of double cropping—wheat and barley were grown as winter crops and rice, millets, and sorghum were grown as summer crops. Other key features of this period were: - The declining culture in this phase is also referred to as sub- Indus culture. - The rural settlements of this phase are primarily Chalcolithic in nature. - The post-urban Harappans lived in villages, subsisting on agriculture, stock-raising, hunting, and fishing. - In this period, painted Harappan pottery is replaced with less intricate designs and painted grey ware (PGW). All Late Harappan sites lack human figurines. In comparison with Mature Harappan pottery, the pottery in the Late Harappan phase was less bright. The pots were thicker and sturdier and many peculiar Harappan shapes like perforated jars, s-shaped jars disappeared. - No object for measuring length is noticed. - The period marks the end of the Harappan trade with West Asian centres, as lapis lazuli, chert, carnelian beads, copper and bronze vessels, are either absent or scarce as trade items. - Important places pertaining to this phase are Prabhas Patan (Somnath), Rangpur (Gujarat), Swat Valley, Manda in Jammu, Sanghol in Punjab, Daulatpur in Haryana, Alamgirpur, Hulas in U.P. Latest Developments a. Scientists from IIT-Kharagpur and the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) have uncovered evidence that the Indus Valley Civilisation is at least 8,000 years old, and not 5,500 years old, taking root well before the Egyptian (7000 BCE−3000 BCE) and Mesopotamian (6500 BCE − 3100 BCE) civilisations. What’s more, the researchers have found evidence of a pre-Harappan civilisation that existed for at least 1,000 years before this. b. The civilisation proliferated to other Indian sites like Bhirrana and Rakhigarhi in Haryana, apart from the known locations of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in Pakistan and Lothal, Dholavira and Kalibangan in India. c. The scientists believe they also know why the civilisation ended about 3,000 years ago — climate change. The Indus Valley people were very resolute and flexible and continued to evolve even in the face of declining monsoon. The people shifted their crop patterns from large-grained cereals like wheat and barley during the early part of intensified monsoon to drought-resistant species like rice in the latter part. As the yield diminished, the organised large storage system of the Mature Harappan period gave way to  more individual household-based crop processing and storage systems that acted as a catalyst for the de- urbanisation of the civilisation rather than an abrupt collapse, they say. Do you Know? a. Burnt Bricks: Harappa Dried Bricks: Egypt Baked Bricks: Mesopotamia/Sumeria b. At the time of the Harappan civilisation, Sindh and Rajasthan were not desert areas as they are today. c. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro served ritual bathing. d. Contemporary Sumerian cities also produced the same food grains and domesticated the same animals as Harappans, but the Harappan people in Gujarat produced rice and domesticated elephants, which was not the case with the people of Mesopotamian cities. e. The Harappans knew the use of wheel but not that of the spoked wheel. f. No temples or religious structures (except the Great Bath) have been found at Harappa. It is very likely that no priests ruled in Harappa, as they did in Mesopotamia. g. The Harappans did not have weapons. h. The Inhabitants of the Indus region worshipped gods in the form of trees, animals, and human beings, but the gods were not placed in temples as was done in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. i. Terracotta refers to figurines made of fire-baked earthen clay. Female terracotta figurines outnumber male figurines in the case of Harappa. j. Although Harappan culture was a Bronze Age Culture, yet they used bronze on a limited scale, and largely  continued to use stone implements. k. Ragi or Finger Millets have not been found in any Harappan site in North India. l. Shortughai is a Harappan trading post in Afghanistan. m. Pre-Harappan Phase—Kot Digi, Amri, Harappan, Kalibangan, Banwali Mature phase—Harappa, Mohanjo-Daro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan Questions from last year’s prelims: 2013 1. Which of the following characterises/characterise the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation? i. They possessed great palaces and temples ii. They worshipped both male and female deities. iii. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare. Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below. (a) and ii only (b) only (c) i, ii and iii (d) None of the statements given above is correct. 2011 2. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilisation, consider the following statements: i. It was predominantly a secular civilisation and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene. ii. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles  in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) i only (b) ii only (c) Both i and ii (d) Neither i nor ii 2002 3. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below: Ancient Site Finding (A) Lothal i. Ploughed Field (B) Kalibangan ii. Dockyard (C) Dholavira iii. Terracota replica of a plough (D) Banawali iv. An Inscription comprising ten large sized signs of the Harappan Script. Codes (a) Ai; B-ii; C-iii; D-iv (b) A-ii; B-i; C-iv; D-iii (c) A-i; B- ii; C- iv; D- iii (d) A-ii; B-i; C-iii; D- iv 4. Which of the following animals was not represented in seals and terracotta art of Harappan Sculpture? (a) Cow (b) Elephant (c) Rhinoceros (d) Tiger Answers 1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (a) Questions from last year’s Mains 1. The ancient civilisation in the Indian sub-continent differed from those of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Greece in that its culture and traditions have been preserved without a breakdown to the present day. Comment. (2015) 2. To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilisation provided inputs to present day urbanisation? Discuss. (2014) 3. Write about the chief features of the town planning in Indus Valley Civilisation. (1996) Practice Questions (Prelims) 1. Terracotta model of ship is found at (a) Lothal (b) Harappa (c) Mohenjo-Daro (d) Alamgirpur 2. A stone-cut reservoir has been discovered at: (a) Surkotada (b) Kalibangan  (c) Dholavira (d) Harappa 3. Match the following A. Harappa i. copper elephant B. Daimabad ii. Bronze dancing girl C. Mohenjodaro iii. Granary outside citadel D. Kalibangan iv. Fire altars (a) A-ii, B-i, C-iii, D-iv (b) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv (c) A-iv, B-iii, C-ii, D-i (d) A-iii, B-i, C-ii, D-iv 4. Consider the following statements and mark the option which is correct. i. The first man-made port was found in Harappa. ii. The main crops of the Indus Valley civilisation were wheat and barley. iii. The largest Harappan settlement in India is Rakhigarhi in Haryana. iv. The largest number of settlements are in the Ghaggar-Hakar valley. (a) i and ii (b) All of the above (c) ii, iii and iv (d) None of the above 5. Match the following A. Mohenjo-Daro i. Daya Ram Sahni B. Chanhu-Daro ii. S.R. Rao C. Harappa iii. R.D. Banerjee D. Lothal iv. M.G. Majumdar (a) A-iii, B-iv, C-i, D-ii (b) A-iii, B-i, C-iv, D-ii (c) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv  (d) A-i, B-ii, C-iv, D-iii 6. Match the following i. Ghaggar A. Mohanjodaro ii. Ravi B. Kalibangan iii. Indus C. Lothal iv. Bhogava D. Harappa (a) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv (b) A-iii, B-iv, C-i, D-ii (c) A-iii, B-i, C-iv, D-ii (d) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i 7. Consider the following statements and mark the option which is correct. i. Rice Husk has been found from Lothal and Rangpur. ii. Evidence of decorated bricks used in flooring at has been found at Kalibangan. iii. A clay model of plough has been discovered from Banawali. iv. The steatite figure of a bearded man has been recovered from Mohenjo-Daro. (a) All of the above (b) ii and iii (c) None of the above (d) i, ii and iii 8. Match the following i.Mohenjo-Daro A. Great Bath ii.Chanhu-Daro B. Without citadel iii.Lothal C. Dockyard iv.Harappa D. Sandstone-make dancer (a) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv (b) A-iii, B-i, C-ii, D-iv (c) A-ii, B-iii, C-iv, D-i (d) A-i, B-iv, C-iii, D-iii 9. Consider the following statements and mark the option which is  correct. i. Broken ivory was used as a scale in Chanhu-Daro. ii. During burial, bodies were laid down in north-south direction iii. The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro (a) i, ii and iii (b) ii and iii (c) ii and iv (d) All of the above 10. Consider the following statements and mark the option which is correct. i. The fertility goddess denotes people’s faith in fertility cult. ii. The area occupied by the Harappan civilisation was triangular in shape. iii. Remains of the horse have been discovered from Surkotada. iv. Painting on a jar resembling the story of the cunning fox from the Panchtantra has been found in Lothal. (a) i and iv (b) All of the above (c) None of the above (d) iii only 11. Consider the following statements and choose the appropriate options from the answers. i. Harappan script is regarded as pictographic. ii. The script was boustrophedon, written from left to right and right to left in alternate lines. iii. The script of the Harappans is not deciphered till now. (a) i, ii, iii (b) ii, iii only (c) i, iii only (d) None of the above 12. Consider the following statements about Harappan sites and choose the appropriate one.  i. Harappans knew about horses but it was not horse-centred. ii. A series of circular platforms has been found between granary and the citadel, which was used for the pounding of grain. iii. The citadel and the platform were crowded one-room dwellings which suggest slave habitats iv. The floor is made of bricks along with gypsum and mortar (a) i, ii, iii only (b) ii, iii, iv only (c) i, ii, iv only (d) i, ii, iii, iv only 13. Match the following sites and their founders i. Chanhundro A. S.R. Rao ii. Kalibangan B. N.G. Majumdar iii. Lothal C. A. Gosh iv. Banwali D. R. S. Visht (a) i - C ii - A iii - D iv - B (b) i - A ii - B iii - C iv - D (c) i - B ii - C iii - A iv - D (d) i - B ii - A iii - C iv - B 14. Consider the following statements and choose appropriate answer about Harappan pottery. i. Harappan pottery is dark red or bright red and is well-baked and uniformly sturdy. ii. Harappan pottery is chiefly wheel-made, consists of both painted and plain ware, the plain variety being more common. iii. Harappan pottery was less utilitarian in character. (a) i, ii, iii only (b) ii, iii, only (c) i, ii, only (d) None of these 15. Consider the following statements about the religious practices of Indus valley civilisation.  i. Indus people worshipped gods in the forms of trees and animals. ii. People believed in evil forces and used amulets as protection against them. iii. Pashupati was represented in seals as sitting in a yogic posture. iv. There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. (a) i, ii, iv only (b) ii, iii, iv only (c) i, iii only (d) i, ii, iii, iv only 16. Consider the following statements about the Indus Valley Civilisation. i. Barley has been found from one of the Indus Valley Civilisation sites ii. People of Indus Valley Civilisation used to make pottery. iii. People of Indus Valley Civilisation used to trade with other countries Which of above statement is/are true about the Indus Valley Civilisation? (a) i only (b) ii only (c) i, ii and iii (d) iii only 17. Which of following statements is incorrect about the Indus Valley Civilisation? (a) People of Indus Valley Civilisation used to practice metallurgy. (b) No site of this civilisation has been found in Haryana region. (c) Animals known to people of Indus Valley Civilisation include humped bull, rhinoceros, elephant, horse. (d) All of the above 18. Which one is the biggest site of the Harappan Civilisation?  (a) Rakhigarhi (b) Harappa (c) Lothal (d) Dholavira 19. Which of the following statements regarding the Indus valley Civilisation is not true? (a) The excavations at Harappa are attributed to R.B. Daya Ram Sahani (b) The Indus Valley people were not acquainted with the art of spinning and weaving (c) Generally houses had an open courtyard and well (d) The Bronze Dancing Girl was discovered at Mohenjo-Daro 21. The main characteristic of the Indus Valley Civilisation was i. Town planning ii. Drainage system iii. Well laid out roads (a) i and ii (b) i only (c) I, ii, iii (d) None of the above 22. Rice cultivation and dockyard is associated with the Harappan site of (a) Kalibangan (b) Harappa (c) Ropar (d) Lothal 23. The Indus Valley people knew the use of (a) Gold, copper, bronze but not iron (b) Silver, iron, gold but not bronze (c) Silver, lead, iron but not copper (d) Gold, tin, bronze but not silver 24.  Site Meaning i. Mohenjodaro Mound of the Dead ii. Kalibangan Bangles of Clay (a) Both are correctly matched (b) Only i is correct (c) Only ii is correct (d) None of them is correctly matched. 25. Metal Source (a) Lapis lazuli (i) Khetri (b) Jade (ii) Afghanistan (c) Copper (iii) Kolar (d) Gold (iv) Pamir (a) A-i, B-ii, C-iii, D-iv (b) A-iii, B-i, C-ii, D-iv (c) A-ii, B-iv, C-i, D-iii (d) A-i, B-iv, C -iii, D-iii 26. Of the following Harappan sites those in India are (a) Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (b) Banwali and Chanhu-Daro (c) Lothal and Kalibangan (d) Lothal and Kot Diji 27. During the Indus valley Civilisation period, the dominant number used for weights and measures was (a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 16 Answers 1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (d) 10. (b) 11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (b) 21. (c) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (d) Practice Questions (Mains) 1. The lifestyle of the Harappan people in all aspects—social, economic (agriculture, trade and commerce), religious—was marked by an aura of advancement not only over past Stone Age cultures, but it also overshadowed its contemporary civilisations.  Elaborate with suitable examples. 2. Identify various important Harappan sites and the significance they hold. 3. Trade was as relevant in Harappan era as it is today. Elucidate specifying about different aspects related to Harappan economy such as seals, weights, different Harappan imports. 4. What were the possible reasons behind the Harappan civilisation’s decline? Also, mention the key features of the post- Harappan phase.  3 THE VEDIC AGE (RIG VEDIC AND LATER VEDIC ) (c. 1500–500 BCE) Harappan culture was followed by another great civilisation and culture known as Vedic culture. It is called Vedic Age as its reconstruction is primarily based on using Vedic texts as sources. However, archaeological sources have also supplemented the texts, though not comprehensively. Indo-Aryans are believed to be the composers of Vedic texts. The term ‘Indo-Aryans’ is basically a linguistic term and refers to speakers of a sub group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo- European family of languages. Rig Veda composers describe themselves as Arya (a cultural/ethnic term etymologically derived from ‘ar’ meaning to cultivate, literally meaning kinsmen or companion, in Sanskrit it means favourably disposed new comers and later it implied men of good family ‘noble’). There is still no consensus on the original home of Aryans and different theories are postulated which further continue the debate. The different theories are as follows: Theory Postulates Supported by European Continent of Europe is the home land of Sir William Theory Aryans. Jones (1786) On the basis of comparative linguistics of Giles – Greek, Latin, German, Gothic, Celtic, and Hungary Sanskrit (Indo-European family of Shroeder – languages), we find certain structural France similarities and cognates (similar related P. Nehring – words). For example, the Sanskrit words Steppes (S. matri and pitri are similar to the Latin Russia) mater and pater. Similarly, Inar of the Morgan – Hittite (Turkey) language is similar to Western Indra of the Vedas. Suryyas and Siberia Maruttash of the Kassite (Mesopotamia) inscriptions are equivalent of the Vedic Surya and Marut. The Indo-Aryans came to India from  Eurasia, they were semi-nomadic people and came from the plains of Eastern Europe, especially the area north of Black Sea. Central Central Asia is the homeland of the Max Muller – Asian Aryans. Central Asia Theory With the comparative study of the ‘Avesta’ E-Meyer (Iranian text) and the ‘Vedas’, one finds Herzfeld striking linguistic relationship between them of not just words but of concepts too. The interchangeability between ‘h’ and ‘s’ and incredible consistency in this change as hepta hindu (sapta sindhu), Ahura (asura), haoma (soma), daha (dasa) further substantiate the claim. Artic Homeland is the Northern Arctic region, Dr. Bal Region as the Vedas speak about 6 months each of Gangadhar Theory long days and long nights, which happens Tilak only in the Arctic region. Tibet Tibet is the original home of Aryans with Swami Theory reference to the Vedas and other Aryan Dayanand texts. Saraswati Indian Indigenous to the subcontinent. Dr. Theory There are definite literary evidences in the Sampurnanand Vedas that the Aryans regarded the Sapta and A.C. Das Sindhu as their original home. –Sapta Sindhu Sanskrit, more than any other European Region language, contains the largest number of Ganganath Jha original Indo-European vocables. It had – Brahmarishi greater contact with the parent language of Desa (situated the Aryans than any other European in the languages. confluence of The sacrificial rituals of the Vedic Aryans the Ganges point to their Indian origin. The and the geographical data found in the Rig Veda Yamu