Ancient & Medieval History PDF Notes

ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY 13 Classes Pl: Vision IAS (by Neeraj Rao) [Embed Duration: 21:41:20] Supplement With: 1. Ancient History Book (RS Sharma) 2. Medieval History (Satish Chandra) 3. Our Pasts 1 (Class 6) (Ancient Indian History) 4. Our Pasts 2 (Class 7) (Medieval Indian History) 5. Themes i...

ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL HISTORY 13 Classes Pl: Vision IAS (by Neeraj Rao) [Embed Duration: 21:41:20] Supplement With: 1. Ancient History Book (RS Sharma) 2. Medieval History (Satish Chandra) 3. Our Pasts 1 (Class 6) (Ancient Indian History) 4. Our Pasts 2 (Class 7) (Medieval Indian History) 5. Themes in Indian History Part 1 (Class 12) (Ancient Indian History) 6. Themes in Indian History Part 2 (Class 12) (Medieval Indian History) 7. Practice PYQs and Test Series(latest).  ✡️ MASTER INDEX ✡️​ CLASS 1: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY: CHRONOLOGY, CONCEPTS, AND PREHISTORY (PAGE 1)​ ○​ This class introduces chronology, historical terms (prehistory, protohistory, and history), and provides an ancient history chronology. ○​ It also touches upon the Gupta Age, Sangam Age Dynasties and Post-Gupta Age. ○​ Additionally it includes a section on Prehistory: Introduction and the Paleolithic Period. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 1 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 1: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY (page 1) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the importance of ancient Indian history which aligns with the introduction in Class 1. ​ It covers chronology, which will further your understanding of timelines presented in Class 1. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 3: NATURE OF SOURCES AND HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTION (page 14) 📌 ​ This chapter will help you understand how historians interpret the past which is linked to the themes of class 1. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 7: HUMAN EVOLUTION: THE OLD STONE AGE (page 50) 📌 ​ This chapter will build upon the introduction to prehistory and the Paleolithic period mentioned in Class 1, providing more detail. ​ OUR PASTS 1 CLASS 6 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 1: WHAT, WHERE, HOW AND WHEN? (page 1) 📌 ​ This chapter introduces how historians find out about the past, which is important to the topics covered in Class 1. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY P1 CLASS 12 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ No specific chapter directly supplements Class 1 content, however, it could be used for future classes. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 2 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 2: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY: MESOLITHIC, NEOLITHIC PERIODS & INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION (PAGE 7) ○​ This class introduces the Mesolithic Period, its key points, and themes in Mesolithic paintings. ○​ It also covers the Neolithic Period, its key points, and important Neolithic sites. ○​ Additionally, it discusses the transition to the Indus Valley Civilisation, connecting the Neolithic period to the Indus Valley Civilisation, and the Indus Valley Civilisation including urban planning and key points of urban planning. ○​ It also mentions Important sites of Indus Valley Civilisation. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 2 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 7: HUMAN EVOLUTION: THE OLD STONE AGE (page 50) 📌 ​ This chapter provides context on the Mesolithic Age as a follow-up to the Old Stone Age, which can further enhance your understanding of the Mesolithic period. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 8: THE NEOLITHIC AGE: FIRST FOOD PRODUCERS AND ANIMAL KEEPERS (page 58) 📌 ​ This chapter expands on the Neolithic period mentioned in Class 2, going into more detail about rural settlements, farming, and cereals. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 9: CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES (page 63) 📌 ​ This chapter provides information on Chalcolithic settlements which is an important transition phase toward the Indus Valley Civilisation that is covered in Class 2. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 10: HARAPPAN CULTURE: BRONZE AGE URBANIZATION IN THE INDUS VALLEY (page 74) 📌 ​ This chapter provides more detail about the Indus Valley Civilisation including town planning, agriculture, technology, and trade which are all touched upon in Class 2. ​ It also includes a section on the end of the Indus Culture. ​ OUR PASTS 1 CLASS 6 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 2: FROM HUNTING-GATHERING TO GROWING FOOD (page 11) 📌 ​ This chapter provides background on the transition from hunter-gatherers to food production, which is essential to understanding the Neolithic period. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 3: IN THE EARLIEST CITIES (page 24) 📌 ​ This chapter delves into the emergence of the first cities, which directly relates to the Indus Valley Civilisation's urban planning discussed in Class 2. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY P1 CLASS 12 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Theme One: BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES: The Harappan Civilisation (page 1) 📌 ​ This theme gives a detailed account of the Harappan Civilisation which is the same as the Indus Valley Civilisation and is linked to the topics in Class 2. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 3: INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION, ECONOMICS, SOCIETY, AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES (PAGE 12)​ ○​ This class covers the Political Organisation (Polity) during the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC). ○​ It also discusses Economic Activities, Social Organisation, and Religious Practices during the IVC. ○​ Additionally it includes information on Burial Practices during the IVC, the Decline of the IVC, and the Chalcolithic Culture. ○​ Finally, the class introduces the Advent of Aryans in India and the Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period), with a focus on the economy. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 3 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 9: CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES (page 63) 📌 ​ This chapter expands on the Chalcolithic Cultures, including settlements and limitations, which is a transition phase covered in Class 3. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 10: HARAPPAN CULTURE: BRONZE AGE URBANIZATION IN THE INDUS VALLEY (page 74) 📌 ​ This chapter provides a detailed view of the Harappan Culture, also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation, including its social organization, religious practices, trade, and technology, which are touched on in Class 3. It also discusses the end of the Indus culture. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 11: IDENTITY OF ARYAN CULTURE (page 94) 📌 ​ This chapter examines texts and other evidence for Aryan culture, the domestication of the horse and the war chariot which relates to the advent of Aryans in India covered in Class 3. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 12: THE AGE OF THE RIG VEDA (page 106) 📌 ​ This chapter delves into the Rig Vedic period, discussing tribal conflicts, agriculture, social differentiation and Rig Vedic gods, which supplements the Early Vedic Period information in Class 3. ​ OUR PASTS 1 CLASS 6 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 3: IN THE EARLIEST CITIES (page 24) 📌 ​ This chapter provides more information on the earliest cities, which will enhance understanding of the Indus Valley Civilisation mentioned in Class 3. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 4: WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US (page 35) 📌 ​ This chapter explores what can be learnt from texts and burials, which is relevant to the discussion of burial practices and other topics in Class 3. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY P1 CLASS 12 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Theme One: BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES: The Harappan Civilisation (page 1) 📌 ​ This theme provides a detailed view of the Harappan Civilisation which is the same as the Indus Valley Civilisation, supplementing the information in Class 3. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 4: POLITY, SOCIETY AND RELIGION DURING THE EARLY AND LATER VEDIC PERIODS (PAGE 17)​ ○​ This class discusses Polity During the Early Vedic Period, including the Responsibilities of the Rajan and the Political Assemblies. ○​ It also covers The Dasarajna War. ○​ The class also describes Society During the Early Vedic Period, including the Status of Women and Slavery. ○​ Additionally, the class outlines Religious Practices During the Early Vedic Period, including Mode and Purpose of Worship and mentions Polygamy and Polyandry. ○​ The class also covers the Later Vedic Period including the Discovery of Iron, Polity During the Later Vedic Period and Ritual Sacrifices. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 4 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 12: THE AGE OF THE RIG VEDA (page 106) 📌 ​ This chapter provides detailed information about the Rig Vedic period, covering tribal conflicts, cattle rearing and agriculture, tribal chiefdom, social differentiation, and Rig Vedic gods, which are all relevant to the Early Vedic Period discussed in Class 4. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 13: THE LATER VEDIC PHASE: TRANSITION TO STATE AND SOCIAL ORDERS (page 117) 📌 ​ This chapter expands on the Later Vedic Period, discussing the use of iron, agriculture, arts and crafts, settlements, political organization, social organization, gods, rituals, and philosophy, all of which enhance the topics covered in Class 4. ​ OUR PASTS 1 CLASS 6 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 4: WHAT BOOKS AND BURIALS TELL US (page 35) 📌 ​ This chapter explores how historians gain insights from texts and burials, providing context for understanding the sources used to study the Vedic periods discussed in Class 4. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 5: KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC (page 46) 📌 ​ This chapter provides additional background on political structures and governance, which is helpful for understanding the polity in the Early and Later Vedic periods. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY P1 CLASS 12 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Theme Two: KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS Early States and Economies (с.600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 28) 📌 ​ Although the time period is slightly later, this chapter helps understand the evolution of political structures and economies that develop after the Vedic period. ○​ ➡️ Theme Three: KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS Early Societies (с. 600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 53) 📌 ​ This theme provides insight into the social structures that developed in the time period following the Vedic period, which can give you a fuller understanding of how those social structures developed. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 5: ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES DURING THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD & RISE OF MAGADHA (PAGE 21)​ ○​ This class discusses the Economy During the Later Vedic Period, including Taxation, and mentions Later Vedic Texts. ○​ It also covers Society During the Later Vedic Period including the Status of Women, Marriage, the Varna System, the Gotra System, Sixteen Samskaras and the Ashrama System. ○​ Additionally, the class covers Religious Practices During the Later Vedic Period. ○​ Finally, the class discusses the Rise of Mahajanapadas and their Key Mahajanapadas and Capitals and Reasons for the Rise of Magadha. ○​ The class concludes with information on the Haryanka Dynasty of Magadha. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 5 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 13: THE LATER VEDIC PHASE: TRANSITION TO STATE AND SOCIAL ORDERS (page 117) 📌 ​ This chapter provides additional detail on the Later Vedic Period, including the use of iron, agriculture, arts and crafts, settlements, political organization, social organization, gods, rituals, and philosophy, which are all relevant to Class 5. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 14: JAINISM AND BUDDHISM (page 130) 📌 ​ This chapter explores the origins and doctrines of Jainism and Buddhism, which emerged during the time period following the later Vedic period, providing an understanding of the changing religious landscape. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 15: TERRITORIAL STATES AND THE RISE OF MAGADHA (page 145) 📌 ​ This chapter provides additional details on the rise of large states including the Mahajanapadas and the growth of the Magadhan Empire mentioned in Class 5. ​ OUR PASTS 1 CLASS 6 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 5: KINGDOMS, KINGS AND AN EARLY REPUBLIC (page 46) 📌 ​ This chapter provides more background on kingdoms, kings and early republics, which are related to the rise of Magadha and the Mahajanapadas. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 6: NEW QUESTIONS AND IDEAS (page 57) 📌 ​ This chapter delves into the new religious ideas that emerged in the same time period as the rise of Magadha, giving more information about the religious context of that era. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY P1 CLASS 12 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Theme Two: KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS Early States and Economies (с.600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 28) 📌 ​ This theme examines the political and economic changes of the period which immediately follows the later vedic age and relates to the rise of Magadha. ○​ ➡️ Theme Three: KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS Early Societies (с. 600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 53) 📌 ​ This theme gives more detail on the social structures of the time period, including how kinship, caste and class were organized. ○​ ➡️ Theme Four: THINKERS, BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS Cultural Developments (с. 600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 82) 📌 ​ This chapter focuses on the cultural developments of the period, which supplements the religious and philosophical shifts of the era. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 6: NANDA AND MAURYAN DYNASTIES: A COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW (PAGE 26)​ ○​ This class provides an Introduction to the Nanda Dynasty, including information about Dhana Nanda and Alexander's Campaign. ○​ It also discusses The Rise of Chandragupta Maurya and The Story of Chanakya and Chandragupta. ○​ The class then covers the Maurya Dynasty, focusing on Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara (the successor of Chandragupta), and Ashoka (the great emperor). ○​ Additionally, it outlines Maurya Administration and discusses Public Welfare and Animal Protection during the Mauryan period. ○​ Finally, the class touches on Society during the Maurya Period. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 6 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 15: TERRITORIAL STATES AND THE RISE OF MAGADHA (page 145) 📌 ​ This chapter provides a detailed look at the conditions for the rise of large states, the Mahajanapadas, and the growth of the Magadhan Empire, which is the context for the rise of the Nanda and Maurya Dynasties discussed in Class 6. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 16: IRANIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS (page 153) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the Iranian and Macedonian Invasions, including Alexander's invasion, which is directly relevant to the discussion of Dhana Nanda and Alexander's campaign in Class 6. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 18: THE MAURYA AGE (page 170) 📌 ​ This chapter delves into the Maurya Age, covering Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka, Ashokan Inscriptions, and the impact of the Kalinga War, all of which are crucial topics in Class 6. It also discusses the internal policies and Buddhism under Ashoka. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 19: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MAURYA RULE (page 179) 📌 ​ This chapter explores state control, economic regulations, art and architecture, and the spread of material culture during the Maurya period, and also discusses the causes for the fall of the Maurya Empire. ​ OUR PASTS 1 CLASS 6 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Chapter 7: ASHOKA, THE EMPEROR WHO GAVE UP WAR (page 67) 📌 ​ This chapter focuses specifically on Ashoka, his life, and his transformation, which supplements the information given about him in Class 6. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY P1 CLASS 12 - (NCERT)​ ○​ ➡️ Theme Two: KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS Early States and Economies (с.600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 28) 📌 ​ This theme gives an overview of the political and economic landscape during the time of the Maurya empire and provides context for understanding the rise and administration of the Mauryas. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 7: POST-MAURYAN INDIA: FOREIGN AND INDIGENOUS DYNASTIES & GUPTA EMPIRE BEGINNINGS (PAGE 30) ○​ This class introduces the Post-Mauryan Period, including a discussion of Foreign Rulers and Indigenous Dynasties. ○​ It outlines the Geographical Distribution of Dynasties during this time. ○​ The class specifically covers Indo-Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushans as foreign rulers. ○​ It also discusses Sunga Dynasty, Kanva Dynasty, and Satavahana Dynasty as indigenous rulers. ○​ Finally, the class introduces the Gupta Dynasty in its early stages. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 7 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 20: CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACT AND MUTUAL IMPACT (page 190) 📌 ​ This chapter details the political aspects of the Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Parthians, Kushans, and Indo-Sassanians, as well as the cultural consequences, such as structures, pottery, better cavalry, trade, agriculture, polity, new elements in Indian society, religious developments, and the origin of Mahayana Buddhism. It also discusses the Gandhara and Mathura schools of art, language, literature, and learning, as well as science and technology, all of which are relevant to the foreign rulers discussed in Class 7. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 21: THE SATAVAHANA PHASE (page 203) 📌 ​ This chapter provides information on the political history, material culture, social organization, administration, religion, and language of the Satavahana Dynasty, which is an indigenous dynasty discussed in Class 7. ​ OUR PASTS 1 CLASS 6 - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 10: NEW EMPIRES AND KINGDOMS (page 103) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses new empires and kingdoms, which provides further context for the political landscape after the Mauryan Empire. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY P1 CLASS 12 - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Theme Two: KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS Early States and Economies (с.600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 28) 📌 ​ This theme gives a broader understanding of the economic and political changes during the post-Mauryan period, including the rise of new kingdoms and the impact of trade and agriculture. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 8: ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY: GUPTAS, SANGAM PERIOD, AND PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY (PAGE 34)​ ○​ This class covers the Gupta Dynasty, specifically mentioning Kumar Gupta and Skanda Gupta. ○​ It also discusses Takshashila University. ○​ The class examines the Economy during the Gupta Period, Administrative Units of the Guptas, Religious Practices during the Gupta Period, and Society during the Gupta Period. ○​ It then introduces the Sangam Period, including the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. ○​ Finally, the class briefly discusses the Pushyabhuti Dynasty. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 8 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 22: THE DAWN OF HISTORY IN THE DEEP SOUTH (page 211) 📌 ​ This chapter gives background on the Megalithic era and details the state formation and development of civilization in the early kingdoms of the south. It also addresses the rise of social classes, the beginnings of Brahmanism, Tamil language and Sangam literature, and social evolution from Sangam texts, all of which are relevant to the discussion of the Sangam Period in Class 8. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 24: RISE AND GROWTH OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE (page 231) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the background of the Gupta Empire, Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, and the fall of the empire, providing more information on the Gupta Dynasty mentioned in Class 8. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 25: LIFE IN THE GUPTA AGE (page 237) 📌 ​ This chapter delves into the system of administration, trends in trade and the agrarian economy, social developments, the state of Buddhism, the origin and growth of Bhagavatism, art, literature, and science and technology during the Gupta period. This offers more detail about the Gupta period discussed in Class 8. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 27: HARSHA AND HIS TIMES (page 255) 📌 ​ This chapter covers Harsha's Kingdom and administration which would be a good supplement to the study of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty in Class 8. ​ OUR PASTS 1 CLASS 6 - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 11: BUILDINGS, PAINTINGS AND BOOKS (page 114) 📌 ​ This chapter gives additional information about the cultural and artistic developments of the period, which supplements the discussion of the Gupta Dynasty and the Sangam period. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY P1 CLASS 12 - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Theme Two: KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS Early States and Economies (с.600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 28) 📌 ○​ This theme will help you understand the economic context of the Gupta Empire and Sangam Age. ○​ ➡️ Theme Three: KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS Early Societies (с. 600 ВСЕ-600 CE) (page 53) 📌 ​ This theme discusses the social structures of the time period and adds to the discussion of the Gupta Empire and Sangam Age. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 9: ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY: DYNASTIES, INVASIONS AND ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS (PAGE 38) ○​ This class includes a correction from the previous class. ○​ It discusses the Pallavas and Chalukyas, including reasons for conflict, early battles, and contributions to temple architecture. ○​ The class also addresses the emergence of new dynasties in the North, specifically mentioning the Pala Dynasty of the East, the Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty of the West, and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty of Central India. ○​ It then touches upon the Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj. ○​ The class also covers the Mainline Chola Dynasty, including Raja Raja Chola and Rajendra Chola I, and the Chola Administration. ○​ Finally, it discusses Islamic Invasions in India. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 9 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ ANCIENT HISTORY BOOK - (RS SHARMA) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 28: BRAHMANIZATION, RURAL EXPANSION, AND PEASANT PROTEST IN THE PENINSULA (page 265) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the new phase of states in the Deccan and South India, including the conflict between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. It also addresses temples, demands on the peasantry, land grants and rural expansion, and social structure and Brahmanization, providing context for the information in Class 9 about the Pallavas and Chalukyas. ​ MEDIEVAL HISTORY BOOK - (SATISH CHANDRA) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 2: NORTHERN INDIA: AGE OF THE THREE EMPIRES (800-1000) (page 12) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the struggle for domination in North India between the Palas, Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas, as well as their political ideas and organization, which are all directly related to the discussion of these dynasties in Class 9. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 3: SOUTH INDIA: THE CHOLA EMPIRE (900-1200) (page 26) 📌 ​ This chapter covers the rise of the Chola Empire, the age of Rajaraja and Rajendra I, Chola government and local self-government, and cultural life, supplementing the information in Class 9 about the Chola Dynasty. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 5: THE AGE OF CONFLICT (Circa 1000-1200) (page 57) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the Turkish conquest of North India and the causes of the defeat of the Rajputs, which can help provide context for the discussion of Islamic Invasions in India in Class 9. ​ OUR PASTS - II CLASS VII - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 2: NEW KINGS AND KINGDOMS (page 16) 📌 ​ This chapter provides a broader overview of the political landscape during the time of the Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Cholas and provides more context on the new dynasties discussed in Class 9. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 10: DELHI SULTANATE AND ITS RULERS (PAGE 43) ○​ This class introduces the Delhi Sultanate. ○​ It covers the Slave Dynasty, including Razia Sultan and Ghiyasuddin Balban. ○​ The class discusses puppet rulers and the rise of Ghiyasuddin Balban. ○​ It also covers the end of the Slave Dynasty. ○​ The class introduces the Khilji Dynasty, focusing on Alauddin Khilji and his market reforms and administration. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 10 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ MEDIEVAL HISTORY BOOK - (SATISH CHANDRA) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 6: THE DELHI SULTANAT—I (Circa 1200-1300) (page 76) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the Mameluk Sultans of the 13th century, the struggle for a strong monarchy, Iltutmish, Raziya, the era of Balban, the Mongols, internal rebellions, and the territorial consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate. This will add context to the information about the Slave Dynasty in Class 10. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 7: THE DELHI SULTANAT—II (Circa 1300-1400) (page 92) 📌 ​ This chapter covers the Khaljis (1290-1320) and the Tughlaqs (1320-1412), as well as the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate, internal reforms, Muhammad Tughlaq's experiments, and the decline and disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. This information is relevant to the Khilji Dynasty and the context of the Delhi Sultanate in Class 10. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 8: GOVERNMENT, AND ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL LIFE under the Delhi Sultanat (page 118) 📌 ​ This chapter provides details on the Sultan, central and local administration, economic and social life, peasants and rural gentry, trade, industry and merchants, town life, caste, social manners and customs, the nature of the state, and religious freedom under the Sultanate, providing a broader view of the administration and life in the Delhi Sultanate. ​ OUR PASTS - II CLASS VII - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 3: THE DELHI SULTANS (page 30) 📌 ​ This chapter offers an overview of the Delhi Sultans and their administration, which provides additional context for the information in Class 10. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 2 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 11: THE TUGHLAQ AND LODHI DYNASTIES, AND THE START OF MUGHAL RULE (PAGE 47) ○​ This class covers the Tughlaq Dynasty, specifically mentioning Muhammad bin Tughlaq and his failed projects, as well as his other initiatives. It also notes Ibn Battuta's visit during this period. ○​ The class discusses revolts and the end of Muhammad bin Tughlaq's reign, followed by Firoz Shah Tughlaq's reign. ○​ It then covers the decline of the Tughlaqs and the rise of the Sayyids, as well as the Sayyid Dynasty. ○​ The class introduces the Lodhi Dynasty. ○​ It mentions the First Battle of Panipat. ○​ The class also touches on administrative departments during the Delhi Sultanate. ○​ Finally, it discusses the beginning of the Mughal Empire and Babur's reign. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 11 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ MEDIEVAL HISTORY BOOK - (SATISH CHANDRA) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 7: THE DELHI SULTANAT—II (Circa 1300-1400) (page 92) 📌 ​ This chapter covers the Tughlaqs (1320-1412), including the expansion of the Delhi Sultanate, internal reforms and experiments, Muhammad Tughlaq's experiments, and the decline and disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. This information is directly relevant to the discussion of the Tughlaq Dynasty in Class 11. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 10: STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE IN NORTH INDIA—I (Circa 1400-1525) (page 162) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the Sharqis and the Lodi Sultans and provides context on the Northwest and North India during this time period, which helps contextualize the Lodhi Dynasty in Class 11. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 12: STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE IN NORTH INDIA—II Mughals and Afghans (1525–1555) (page 202) 📌 ​ This chapter provides details on Central Asia and Babur, the conquest of India, and the Battle of Panipat, all of which are relevant to the beginning of the Mughal Empire mentioned in Class 11. It also discusses the Afghans, which is relevant to the decline of the Delhi Sultanate in Class 11. ​ OUR PASTS - II CLASS VII - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 3: THE DELHI SULTANS (page 30) 📌 ​ This chapter provides a general overview of the Delhi Sultans which will give more context for the Tughlaq and Lodhi Dynasties and the administrative departments of the Delhi Sultanate covered in Class 11. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 4: THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (page 45) 📌 ​ This chapter offers a basic introduction to the Mughal Empire and Babur's reign, providing further context for the end of Class 11. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 2 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 12: MUGHAL EMPIRE: HUMAYUN, SUR EMPIRE, AND AKBAR (PAGE 52) ○​ This class introduces the Mughal Empire. ○​ It covers Humayun's initial phase (1530-1540). ○​ The class discusses the Sur Empire (1540-1555). ○​ It mentions Humayun's return and death. ○​ The class then focuses on Akbar's reign (1556-1605), including his policy towards Rajput rulers, administration, economic initiatives, and social and religious initiatives. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 12 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ MEDIEVAL HISTORY BOOK - (SATISH CHANDRA) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 12: STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE IN NORTH INDIA—II Mughals and Afghans (1525–1555) (page 202) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses Humayun's conquest of Gujarat and his struggles with Sher Shah, as well as Sher Shah and the Sur Empire (1540–55) and the contributions of Sher Shah, which are all directly relevant to the discussion of Humayun and the Sur Empire in Class 12. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 13: CONSOLIDATION OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE Age of Akbar (page 226) 📌 ​ This chapter offers information on the early phase of Akbar's reign, including his contest with the nobility (1556–67) and early expansion of the empire (1560–76). It also details Akbar's administration, including the Mansabdari system and the army, organisation of government, relations with the Rajputs, rebellions, and further expansion of the Mughal Empire, as well as its integration, and religious and social reforms, which all help to expand on Class 12's overview of Akbar. ​ OUR PASTS - II CLASS VII - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 4: THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (page 45) 📌 ​ This chapter provides an introduction to the Mughal Empire, which gives a broader view on Humayun's and Akbar's reigns, and the Sur Empire discussed in Class 12. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II Class XII - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 15: PEASANTS, ZAMINDARS AND THE STATE (page 196) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the agrarian society and the Mughal Empire (c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries), which provides context for the economic initiatives taken by Akbar during his reign discussed in Class 12. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 19: KINGS AND CHRONICLES (page 224) 📌 * This chapter discusses the Mughal Courts (c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries), which provides context for understanding the society and administration of the Mughal Empire under Akbar, as mentioned in Class 12. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟 CLASS 13: MUGHAL, REGIONAL KINGDOMS, AND VIJAYANAGAR KINGDOM HISTORY (PAGE 56) ○​ This class covers the reigns of Jahangir (1605-1627), Shah Jahan (1627-1658), and Aurangzeb. ○​ It introduces the topic of regional kingdoms, specifically mentioning the Bahmani Kingdom. ○​ The class also discusses the Vijayanagara Kingdom. Here are some supplementary sources to enhance your understanding of Class 13 topics: SOURCES NAMES, CHAPTER NAME & PAGE NUMBER ​ MEDIEVAL HISTORY BOOK - (SATISH CHANDRA) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 9: THE AGE OF VIJAYANAGARA AND THE BAHMANIDS, and the Coming of the Portuguese (Circa 1350-1565) (page 138) 📌 ​ This chapter covers the Vijayanagara Empire—its foundation and conflict with the Bahmani Kingdom and the Bahmani Kingdom—its expansion and disintegration which are directly relevant to the regional kingdoms covered in Class 13. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 14: THE DECCAN AND SOUTH INDIA (Up to 1656) (page 259) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses Mughal advances towards the Deccan, and details the cultural contribution of the Deccan States which can provide additional context for the regional kingdoms of the Bahmani and Vijayanagara covered in Class 13. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 15: INDIA IN THE FIRST HALF OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY (page 276) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the political and administrative developments in India during the reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan, including Nur Jahan, Shah Jahan's rebellion, Mahabat Khan, and the foreign policy of the Mughals, including Shah Jahan's Balkh campaign and Mughal-Persian relations, all of which provide context for the Mughal rulers mentioned in Class 13. ​ OUR PASTS - II CLASS VII - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 4: THE MUGHAL EMPIRE (page 45) 📌 ​ This chapter offers a broad overview of the Mughal Empire which gives a basic introduction to Jahangir's, Shah Jahan's, and Aurangzeb's reigns mentioned in Class 13. ​ THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY PART II Class XII - (NCERT) ○​ ➡️ Chapter 12: AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL: VIJAYANAGARA (page 170) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the Vijayanagara Empire (c. fourteenth to sixteenth century), giving a more in-depth view of the kingdom mentioned in Class 13. ○​ ➡️ Chapter 19: KINGS AND CHRONICLES (page 224) 📌 ​ This chapter discusses the Mughal Courts (c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries), providing context for understanding the society and administration of the Mughal Empire under Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, as mentioned in Class 13. SUMMARY OF SUPPLEMENTARY SOURCES ​ You were supplemented with 3 sources. 📌🌟  -ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY CLASS 1 CLASS: CHRONOLOGY, CONCEPTS, 1 AND PREHISTORY- Historical Terms: Prehistory, Protohistory, and 2 History Ancient History Chronology 2-4. Gupta Age 4 Sangam Age Dynasties 4 Post-Gupta Age 4 Reference Material 5 Prehistory: Introduction 5 Paleolithic Period 5 Conclusion 6 -ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY: CLASS 2 MESOLITHIC, NEOLITHIC PERIODS & 7 INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION- Introduction 7 Mesolithic Period 7 Important Sites 10 Conclusion 11 -INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION, CLASS 3 ECONOMICS, SOCIETY, AND 12 RELIGIOUS PRACTICES- Introduction 12 Political Organisation (Polity) During the IVC 12 Economic Activities During the IVC 12-13. Social Organisation During the IVC 13 Religious Practices During the IVC 13-14 Burial Practices During the IVC 14 Decline of the IVC 14 Chalcolithic Culture 14-15 Advent of Aryans in India 15 Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period) (1500- 15-16 1000 BC): Economy Conclusion 16 -POLITY, SOCIETY AND RELIGION CLASS 4 DURING THE EARLY AND LATER 17 VEDIC PERIODS- Polity During the Early Vedic Period 17 Responsibilities of the Rajan 17 The Political Assemblies 17  The Dasarajna War 17-18 Society During the Early Vedic Period 18 Status of Women 18 Slavery 18 Religious Practices During the Early Vedic 19 Period Mode and Purpose of Worship 19 Polygamy and Polyandry 19 Later Vedic Period 19 Discovery of Iron 19-20 Polity During the Later Vedic Period 20 Ritual Sacrifices 20 Conclusion 20 -ECONOMY, SOCIETY AND RELIGIOUS CLASS 5 PRACTICES DURING THE LATER 21 VEDIC PERIOD & RISE OF MAGADHA- Economy During the Later Vedic Period 21 Taxation 21 Later Vedic Texts 21 Society During the Later Vedic Period 21 Status of Women 21 Marriage 22 Varna System 22 Gotra System 22 Sixteen Samskaras 22 Ashrama System 23 Religious Practices During the Later Vedic 23 Period Rise of Mahajanapadas 23 Key Mahajanapadas and Capitals 23-24 Reasons for the Rise of Magadha 24 Haryanka Dynasty of Magadha 24 Shishunaga Dynasty of Magadha 24 Nanda Dynasty of Magadha 25 Conclusion 25 -NANDA AND MAURYAN DYNASTIES: A CLASS 6 26 COMPREHENSIVE OVERVIEW-  Introduction to the Nanda Dynasty 26 Dhana Nanda and Alexander's Campaign 26 The Rise of Chandragupta Maurya 26-27 The Story of Chanakya and Chandragupta 27 The Maurya Dynasty: Chandragupta Maurya 27 Bindusara: The Successor of Chandragupta 27-28 Ashoka: The Great Emperor 28 Maurya Administration 28-29 Public Welfare and Animal Protection 29 Society during the Maurya Period 29 Conclusion 29 -POST-MAURYAN INDIA: FOREIGN CLASS 7 AND INDIGENOUS DYNASTIES & 30 GUPTA EMPIRE BEGINNINGS- Introduction to the Post-Mauryan Period 30 Foreign Rulers 30 Indigenous Dynasties 30 Geographical Distribution of Dynasties 30 Indo-Greeks 30-31 Sakas 31 Parthians 31 Kushans 31-32 Indigenous Rulers 32 Sunga Dynasty 32 Kanva Dynasty 32 Satavahana Dynasty 32 Gupta Dynasty: Early Stages 33 -ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY: GUPTAS, CLASS 8 SANGAM PERIOD, AND PUSHYABHUTI 34 DYNASTY- The Gupta Dynasty: Kumar Gupta 34 Takshashila University 34 The Gupta Dynasty: Skanda Gupta 34 Economy during the Gupta Period 35 Administrative Units of the Guptas 35 Religious Practices during the Gupta Period 35 Society during the Gupta Period 35-36 The Sangam Period 36 The Cheras 36 The Cholas 36  The Pandyas 36-37 Pushyabhuti Dynasty 37 Conclusion 37 -ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY: CLASS 9 DYNASTIES, INVASIONS AND 38 ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEMS- Correction from Previous Class 38 Pallavas and Chalukyas 38 Reasons for Conflict 38 Early Battles 38 Contributions to Temple Architecture 38-39 Emergence of New Dynasties in the North 39 The Pala Dynasty of the East 39 The Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty of the West 39 The Rashtrakuta Dynasty of Central India 39 Tripartite Struggle for Kannauj 39 Mainline Chola Dynasty 40 Raja Raja Chola 40 Rajendra Chola I 40 Chola Administration 40-41 Islamic Invasions in India 41-42 Conclusion 42 CLASS 10 -DELHI SULTANATE AND ITS RULERS- 43 Introduction to the Delhi Sultanate 43 The Slave Dynasty 43 Razia Sultan (1236-1240) 44 Puppet Rulers and the Rise of Ghiyasuddin 44 Balban Ghiyasuddin Balban (1265-1286) 44 The End of the Slave Dynasty 44 The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320) 45 Alauddin Khilji (1296-1316) 45 Alauddin Khilji's Market Reforms and 45-46 Administration Conclusion 46 -THE TUGHLAQ AND LODHI CLASS 11 DYNASTIES, AND THE START OF 47 MUGHAL RULE- The Tughlaq Dynasty 47 Muhammad bin Touglak Takes Over 47 Failed Projects of Muhammad bin Touglak 47-48 Other Initiatives of Muhammad bin Touglak 48  Ibn Battuta's Visit 48 Revolts and the End of Muhammad bin 48 Touglak's Reign Firoz Shah Touglak's Reign 49 The Decline of the Touglaks and the Rise of the 49 Sayyids The Sayyid Dynasty 49 The Lodhi Dynasty 49-50 The First Battle of Panipat 50 Administrative Departments During Delhi 50 Sultanate The Mughal Empire Begins 50 Babur's Reign 50-51 Conclusion 51 -MUGHAL EMPIRE: HUMAYUN, SUR CLASS 12 52 EMPIRE, AND AKBAR- Introduction 52 Humayun's Initial Phase (1530-1540) 52 The Sur Empire (1540-1555) 52-53 Humayun's Return and Death 53 Akbar's Reign (1556-1605) 53-54 Policy Towards Rajput Rulers 54 Akbar's Administration 54 Economic Initiatives 54 Social and Religious Initiatives 55 Conclusion 55 -MUGHAL, REGIONAL KINGDOMS, CLASS 13 AND VIJAYANAGAR KINGDOM 56 HISTORY- Introduction 56 Jahangir's Reign (1605-1627) 56 Shah Jahan's Reign (1627-1658) 57 Aurangzeb's Reign 57-58 Regional Kingdoms: The Bahmani Kingdom 58 The Vijayanagara Kingdom 58-59 Conclusion 59  Page 1 CLASS 1 -ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY CLASS: CHRONOLOGY, CONCEPTS, AND PREHISTORY- Introduction This class is an introduction to ancient and medieval history, focusing on the chronology of events, key concepts, and the start of the prehistoric period. The class emphasizes understanding how historical periods and events relate to each other, rather than simply memorizing dates. The importance of previous year papers and class notes is also stressed. Class Team and Introduction The instructor begins by acknowledging the team, Tanya and Bhargavi, who are responsible for sending queries. The class includes RB7, who have completed modern Indian history, and RB10, who are new to the course. The instructor expresses a desire to understand the types of questions the students have, indicating a need for intervention, admonition, or critical analysis. Importance of Ancient and Medieval History ​ Ancient and medieval history is a very important section for the prelims stage of the exam. ​ Around 17 to 18 questions are expected from the history portion, including ancient, medieval, modern, and art and culture. ​ Modern Indian history makes up about half of the questions, and the other half consists of ancient, medieval, and art and culture. ​ This section is not specifically mentioned in the mains syllabus. However, it is important for the mains exam through the route of art and culture. ​ You should prepare this subject for the prelims but revise the class notes for the mains. Class Rules and Expectations ​ The instructor clarifies that this is an online class, and thus is different from offline classes where personal queries can be addressed more easily. ​ Students should refer to previous year papers to understand what kind of questions are asked and their relevance. ​ It’s important to understand what to read and what not to read. ​ The instructor's job is to complete ancient and medieval history in ten classes, which limits avenues for interaction later. ​ Students need to be attentive during the class, and only good queries will be forwarded. ​ Some questions will receive an oral reply, and some a written one. ​ The class is meant to be a dialogue, not a monologue, though there are limitations online. ​ The class must be enjoyable while still completing what needs to be completed.  Page 2 Class Scheme ​ The ancient and medieval history section will take about ten classes, with ancient being a little longer than medieval. ​ Six or more classes will focus on ancient, and the rest will be on medieval. ​ The instructor will ask for extra classes if required to ensure all content is covered. The Importance of Chronology ​ History is all about chronology, and if the chronology is not understood, it becomes difficult to understand how things happened and which events followed which event. ​ Chronology will be covered, but students are requested to write the chronology but not the stories in the class. ​ Chronology is important in many fields, not just history, including polity, economy, law, and public policy. Historical Terms: Prehistory, Protohistory, and History ​ There are three terms related to history: prehistory, protohistory, and history. ​ Prehistory is related to early human beings, and there are no written records. Information is gathered from the artifacts and objects used by these humans. The Stone Age is an example of prehistory. ​ Protohistory has written records, but they have not been deciphered, and Indus Valley Civilization is an example. ​ History has written records that have been deciphered. Ancient History Chronology The class starts with the chronology of ancient history, noting that it provides a clearer understanding of the historical course. ​ Prehistoric Period: ○​ This is the phase when human evolution was happening, and they learned hunting and community living. ○​ It is divided into three phases: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. ○​ Paleolithic Phase started around 500,000 BC and continued until 10,000 BC. ○​ Mesolithic Phase started around 10,000 BC and continued until 6,000 BC. ○​ Neolithic Phase started around 6,000 BC and continued until 3,000 BC. ○​ The Paleolithic period is the stone age, where humans started using different stone tools. The Mesolithic period saw the development of living in communities and domesticating animals. The Neolithic period is when they started using new, effective stone tools. ​ Protohistory: ○​ The Indus Valley Civilization (also known as Harappan Civilization) is considered part of protohistory. ○​ It was from approximately 2600 BC to 1800 BC. There are ongoing debates and discussions regarding this civilization. The preparatory phase of Indus valley is around 3000 BC to 2600 BC.  Page 3 ○​ After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, local cultures survived in other parts of the country. ○​ The Chalcolithic period is mentioned and is placed roughly from 1800 to 1500 BC, but it should not be bracketed as it has a long span. ​ Advent of Aryans: ○​ Around 1500 BC, the Aryans arrived in India from Central Asia. This event changed the course of ancient Indian history. ○​ The period after their arrival is called the Vedic Age because they started composing the Vedas. ​ Vedic Age ○​ The Vedic Age is divided into two parts: Early Vedic and Later Vedic. ○​ The Early Vedic period is from approximately 1500 BC to 1000 BC. ○​ The Later Vedic period is from 1000 BC to the 6th century BC. ○​ During this time, there was cultural growth and the composition of Vedas in Sanskrit. ​ 6th Century BC: ○​ This century saw the rise of religious movements in India. ○​ Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajivika emerged. ○​ Also, there was a rise of 16 Mahajanapadas, which were large territorial states. Some were monarchies, while others were republics or oligarchies. ​ History of Magadh: ○​ Magadh became the most powerful Mahajanapada. ○​ The first dynasty of Magadh was the Haryanka dynasty, which ruled from 554 BC to 412 BC. Key rulers included Bimbisara and Ajatshatru. ○​ The Shishunaga dynasty replaced the Haryanka dynasty, ruling from 412 BC to 344 BC. ○​ The Nanda dynasty replaced the Shishunaga dynasty, ruling from 344 BC to 321 BC. ​ Mauryan Dynasty: ○​ The Mauryan dynasty replaced the Nanda dynasty, which ruled from 321 BC to 185 BC. ○​ The Mauryan dynasty was established by Chandragupta Maurya. ○​ Important rulers included Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and Ashoka, who is considered the first Chakravarti Samrat of India. Ashoka's rule was vast and he promoted Buddhism. ○​ The Mauryan period is very important and their symbols have been incorporated in the Indian constitution. ​ Post-Mauryan Age: ○​ After Ashoka, the rulers were weak and by 185 BC, the dynasty was so weak that it was replaced by the Sunga Dynasty. The Mauryan empire shrunk and outsiders invaded India, some who later settled down. ○​ The post-Mauryan Age is divided into two categories: ​ Outsiders: Indo-Greeks (165 BC), Shakas (90 BC), Parthians (25 AD), and Kushanas (65 AD). ​ Indigenous Rulers: Shunga (185 BC), Kanvas (75 BC) in Magadh, and Satavahanas (2nd century BC) in Deccan. The Satavahanas consolidated their power in the 1st century AD. ​ The Satavahanas annexed Magadh, ending its rule.  Page 4 ​ Gupta Age: ○​ By 200 AD, the power of both the Satavahanas and Kushanas started to decline. ○​ The Gupta Dynasty emerged in the 4th century AD and became powerful by 319 AD. The Gupta Age lasted from 319 AD to 550 AD. ○​ Important rulers include Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta, and Skandagupta. ○​ The Guptas ruled the north and central India, while in south, there were other dynasties. ​ Sangam Age Dynasties: ○​ In the far south of India, three dynasties emerged known as the Sangam Age dynasties: Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas. ○​ Their time period was approximately from the 3rd century BC to 6th century AD. ○​ They are contemporary to the Guptas. ​ Post-Gupta Age: ○​ After 550 AD, the Gupta dynasty declined, and a new dynasty, the Pushyabhuti dynasty emerged in the 7th century AD, with Harsha Vardhana as the most important ruler. ○​ In South India, the Cholas disappeared, leaving a power vacuum that was filled by the Pallavas and Chalukyas. ○​ Pushyabhuti Dynasty emerged in the early 7th century AD. ○​ Pallavas and Chalukyas emerged in the middle of the 6th century AD and early 7th century AD, respectively. ​ By 700 AD, the Pushyabhuti dynasty disappeared, and the area controlled by Harshvardhana was taken over by three new dynasties. ​ Three new dynasties appeared by 750 AD: Pala, Gurjara Pratihara, and Rashtrakuta. Pala was in the east, Pratihara in the west, and Rashtrakuta in the southwest and central India. ​ By the end of the 9th century, the Pallavas disappeared, and the Imperial Chola emerged. ​ This marked the end of ancient chronology. Understanding BC, AD, BCE and CE ​ BC means Before Christ, referring to all years before the birth of Jesus Christ. ​ AD means Anno Domini, which translates to "in the year of the Lord", referring to all years after the birth of Jesus Christ. ​ BCE means Before Common Era, a secular equivalent of BC. ​ CE means Common Era, a secular equivalent of AD. ​ Years are counted using a number line, where BC/BCE is negative, and AD/CE is positive. ​ To count the years between a BC and AD date, you count each year. Medieval History Chronology ​ Compared to ancient history, medieval is simpler. ​ The first empire is the Delhi Sultanate (1206 - 1526 AD). The important dynasties are: Slave dynasty (1206 - 1290), Khilji dynasty (1290 - 1320), Tughlaq dynasty (1320 - 1414), Sayyid dynasty (1414 - 1451), and Lodhi dynasty (1451 - 1526).  Page 5 ​ After this the Mughal Empire (1526 - 1707), whose rulers include Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. ​ The Sur Empire existed during the time of Humayun (1540-1555). ​ During the time of the Tughlaqs, the Vijaynagar kingdom and the Bahmani kingdom emerged in South India. Vijaynagar kingdom was from 1336 AD, and the Bahmani kingdom was from 1347 AD. Reference Material ​ It’s important not to buy any guide books but to focus on the NCERT books. ​ Old NCERTs: ○​ Ancient India by Romila Thapar (Class 6). ○​ Medieval India by Romila Thapar (Class 7). ○​ Ancient India by R.S. Sharma (Class 11). ○​ These are helpful for both ancient/medieval history and for the art and culture section. ​ Other books (optional): ○​ Tamil Nadu state board history books. ○​ New NCERTs (Class 6/7 and Class 11) can be used selectively. ​ From Class 11 new NCERT, Themes in Indian History Part I, focus on Buddhism, Jainism. ​ From Class 11 NCERT Themes in Indian History Part II, focus on Bhakti, Sufi, and Vijaynagar. ​ It is best to focus on the class notes and the above listed books. Prehistory: Introduction ​ Prehistory is about the early phase of humans. ​ Humans first appeared on the planet in the middle of the Pleistocene epoch, and the present evolutionary phase is called Holocene. ​ Humans are classified as chordates, then mammals, then primates. From primates, modern humans or Homo sapiens evolved. ​ Early human needs were met by hunting animals. ​ The trait that caused the Homo Sapiens to survive was their ability to communicate and gossip. ​ Early humans used stone tools as their first form of technology. Paleolithic Period ​ The Paleolithic period is the first phase of prehistory, from 500,000 BC to 10,000 BC. ​ It is further divided into three phases: ○​ Lower Paleolithic: 500,000 BC to 100,000 BC. The tools were rough, big, irregular in shape. The characteristic tools were hand axes, cleavers, and choppers. ○​ Middle Paleolithic: 100,000 BC to 40,000 BC. The tools were rectangular in shape. The characteristic tools were borers, burins, and blades. ○​ Upper Paleolithic: 40,000 BC to 10,000 BC. The tools were triangular in shape. The characteristic tools were blades and points. ​ The Paleolithic tools in India have been found in: ○​ Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh), Sohan Valley (Pakistan), Belan Valley (UP/MP), Narmada Valley, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh).  Page 6 Conclusion This class covered the fundamentals of ancient and medieval Indian history. It began with an overview of class dynamics and expectations, emphasizing the importance of understanding chronology and historical terms. Then it covered the timeline of events in ancient India, including different civilizations, empires, and dynasties, explaining their significance. The class also introduced medieval history, including the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, as well as important southern dynasties. The instructor emphasized the importance of referencing the correct material. The class then proceeded to the prehistory era, giving details of early humans and Paleolithic age. Understanding these basic concepts will help you follow along in the subsequent classes. The next class will cover the mesolithic and neolithic periods. ALL DONE  Page 7 CLASS 2 -ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL HISTORY: MESOLITHIC, NEOLITHIC PERIODS & INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION- Introduction The class is a continuation of the study of ancient and medieval history. The previous class covered the Paleolithic period and today's discussion will start with the Mesolithic period and will then move to the Neolithic period and finally the Indus Valley Civilization. Mesolithic Period ​ Time Frame: The Mesolithic phase lasted from 10,000 BC to roughly 6,000 BC. ​ Climate Change: The Paleolithic period was marked by very cold temperatures and glaciation, but the Mesolithic period saw the climate become warmer. This warming trend was conducive for human development as people started to move to different places. ​ Living Beings: The warmer climate also promoted the growth of flora and fauna. ​ Stone Tools: The lithic word refers to stone. Mesolithic people used small, sharp tools called microliths. These tools were not only used for hunting but also for other activities, such as rock engravings. ​ Tool Usage: People had mastered the technique of using tools effectively, including throwing them at a 45-degree angle. ​ Rock Engravings: Mesolithic people created images on cave walls with their tools, which are also known as Misolithic paintings. These paintings were often filled with color. ​ Animal Domestication: There is evidence of animal domestication during the Neolithic phase. This evidence was found in Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh and Bagor in Rajasthan. Key Points of the Mesolithic Phase ​ Transition from a very cold to a warm climate. ​ Conducive for the development of flora and fauna. ​ Human beings started moving to different places. ​ Domestication of animals. ​ The use of microliths, which were small, sharp tools. ​ These tools were used for hunting and rock engraving (or Mesolithic painting / petroglyphs). A petroglyph is a line diagram created by engraving on rock. Mesolithic painting provides insights into the sociocultural practices of the Mesolithic community. The colors used were natural and mineral based, with red being the dominating color. Red color was sourced from plants, flowers, and animal blood, suggesting that people had observed the longevity of the color in blood stains. Themes in Mesolithic Paintings ​ Hunting ​ Gathering  Page 8 ​ Animal Riding ​ Group dance and celebration ​ Fighting ​ Sexual union ​ Household chores ​ Phallus worship ​ Yoni worship Inferences from Themes ​ Hunting and Animal Riding: Show that humans were in a dominating position. Animal riding indicates domestication of animals. ​ Group Dance and Celebration: Suggest a community sense, where people shared feelings and occasions together. ​ Household Chores and Fighting: Show a division of labor between men and women. ​ Sexual Union: Highlights their understanding of how the human race continues. Also represents the union of people which possibly developed into the concept of a primitive marriage. ​ Phallus and Yoni Worship: Indicate a primitive form of worship related to the act of creation. Phallus is the male sexual organ and yoni is the female sexual organ. These were seen as the vehicle of an act of God, which is the union of two people and the birth of a child. Neolithic Period ​ Time Frame: The Neolithic phase lasted from 6,000 BC to 3,000 BC. ​ Community Life: People started living in larger communities and built thatched houses. ​ Stone Tools: Neolithic people used stone tools that were not only small and sharp but also polished. This polishing increased the tools' sharpness and piercing capacity. ​ Bone Implements: Tools made from bones were also used. ​ Bow and Arrow: The use of bow and arrow became common. ​ Agricultural Practices: The development of agricultural communities and the beginning of agriculture were important in this period. The earliest evidence is from Mehrgarh in the Balochistan province of Pakistan. ​ Pottery: People began making wheel-made pottery. The wheel was invented during this period. ​ Fire: People learned how to control fire which is different from the discovery of fire. Controlling fire allowed them to cook food more effectively. Key Points of the Neolithic Phase ​ Human beings began living in larger communities in thatched houses. ​ Stone tools were small, sharp, and polished. ​ Use of bone implements and bow and arrow. ​ Start of agricultural practices. ​ First evidence of agriculture from Mehrgarh in Balochistan, Pakistan. ​ Creation of wheels and wheel-made pottery. ​ Mastery of controlled use of fire. Important Neolithic Sites  Page 9 ​ Gufkral and Burzahom in Kashmir ​ Chirand in Bihar ​ Sarai Neharaya in UP ​ Bhimbetka, which has evidence from all phases (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) Transition to the Indus Valley Civilization The base for the development of civilization was agriculture, specifically the agricultural surplus. This surplus led to living in one place, trade, trade centers, storage, houses, utility services, administrative setups, and eventually urban areas and civilizations. Connecting Neolithic to Indus Valley Civilization ​ Neolithic phase saw the beginning of agriculture. ​ Agriculture led to an agricultural surplus. ​ Surplus led to trade. ​ Trade led to the development of trade centers. ​ Trade centers led to storage facilities and housing. ​ This further led to the development of utility services and administrative setups. ​ All of these developments led to the development of urban areas and civilization such as the Indus Valley Civilization. Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan Civilization) ​ Time Frame: Roughly 2600 BC to 1800 BC. ​ Discovery: Information about this civilization was available from the 1870s. Railway lines were being laid between Lahore and Karachi when unusual things were discovered in the Punjab region. ​ Archaeological Survey: The Archaeological Survey of India was created in 1861 with Alexander Cunningham as its first chairman. ​ Excavation: Actual excavation started in the 1920s when J.H. Marshall became the head of the Archaeological Survey of India. Daya Ram Sahni discovered Harappa in 1921, and R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro in 1922. ​ Advanced Civilization: By the 1930s, the Indus Valley Civilization was recognised as the most advanced in the world at the time. Key Points of the Indus Valley Civilization ​ Information about this civilization was available from the 1870s. ​ Excavation began in the 1920s. ​ Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921 and R.D. Banerjee excavated Mohenjodaro in 1922. ​ The Indus Valley Civilization was the most advanced of its time. Urban Planning The Indus Valley Civilization was known for its advanced urban planning. The most important aspect of this was the use of burnt brick.  Page 10 ​ Town Division: Indus Valley towns were divided into two parts: the upper town (citadel) and the lower town. ​ Citadel: The citadel was built on an elevated platform and had administrative buildings, granaries and common baths. ​ Lower Town: The lower town was large and had sectors with houses, roads, and drains. ​ Roads: Roads in the lower town were well planned and cut each other at right angles. ​ Drains: Drains were present on both sides of the roads, were covered, and had manholes with gypsum coating. The gypsum helped in filtering the waste and recharging groundwater. ​ Houses: Houses varied in size, ranging from single story to triple story, and were made of burnt brick. They had bedrooms, courtyards, separate kitchens, and washrooms. The houses also had connections to the main drains. ​ Privacy: People were concerned about their privacy, which is why they did not build main gates facing the main roads. ​ Measurement System: The Indus Valley Civilization used a decimal system and had a good system of measurement as evidenced by the uniform size of bricks. The ratio of the brick sizes were 4:2:1 (length, width and height). ​ Great Bath of Mohenjodaro: The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro had stairs on the north and south sides. The stairs were made of brick. Rooms were built in the east and west directions. The great bath was a stepped water tank meant for ritual bathing. ​ Granaries: Granaries were built for the storage of grains. These structures were made scientifically with strategic holes to prevent spoilage. Key Points of Urban Planning ​ Indus Valley towns were divided into an upper town and a lower town. ​ The upper town (Citadel) had administrative buildings, granaries, and common baths. ​ The lower town was meant for habitation and had sectors, houses, roads and drains. ​ Drains were created scientifically with manholes lined with gypsum. ​ The houses in the lower town ranged from single to triple-story and were made of burnt bricks. ​ Houses had bedrooms, courtyards, separate kitchens, and washrooms. ​ The people of the Indus Valley Civilization were concerned with privacy and didn't face their main gates towards the main roads. ​ The Great Bath of Mohenjodaro had stairs on the north and south sides. ​ Indus Valley people used a decimal system for measurement. Important Sites ​ Harappa and Mohenjodaro were known for textiles. ​ Kalibangan was known for its bangle industry. ​ Chanhu-daro was known for its bead industry. ​ Lothal had a dockyard, and Lothal and Rangpur were famous for rice cultivation. ​ Rakhigarhi is the largest site of the Indus Valley Civilization. ​ Dholavira was known for its three-layered urban planning. ​ Other important sites include: Manda in the north, Sutkagan Dor in the west, Alamgirpur in the east, and Daimabad in the south. Other important sites include: Chanhu-daro, Sutkagoh, Alahdino, Balakot, Dholavira, Desalpur, Lothal, Rangpur, Surkotada, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, Banawali and Bhirrana.  Page 11 Conclusion The Mesolithic period was a transitional phase marked by warmer climates and the development of microlith tools and rock art, as well as the domestication of animals. The Neolithic period saw the emergence of agricultural practices, pottery, and the controlled use of fire. This set the stage for the development of the Indus Valley Civilization, which was renowned for its advanced urban planning, use of burnt brick, and scientific approach to hygiene and community life. This civilization was complex and sophisticated in many respects. The key takeaway is the remarkable progress made by humans in these periods leading to sophisticated city planning in the Indus Valley Civilization. ALL DONE  Page 12 CLASS 3 -INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION, ECONOMICS, SOCIETY, AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES- Introduction The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) is a fascinating period in history, and we will explore its political structure, economic activities, social organization, and religious practices. Due to a lack of deciphered written evidence, much of our understanding comes from inferences drawn from available evidence, particularly town planning and the structure of Indus Valley towns. Political Organisation (Polity) During the IVC ​ Centralised Authority: Based on the town planning and the presence of a citadel area, which seemed like an administrative centre, it's inferred that the Indus polity was centralised. This indicates a central authority, though the exact nature of this authority is debated. ​ Type of Authority: Historians have proposed different theories about the nature of the central authority. Some suggest that priests were the head of the polity, while others propose a king. However, the most plausible theory suggests that a group of rich traders or merchants were the central authority, rather than a monarchy. ​ Absence of Monarchical System and Standing Army: There is no evidence of a monarchical system or a standing army in the Indus Valley Civilisation. This supports the idea that the central authority was likely a group of influential people rather than a single ruler. ​ Summary: The Indus Valley Civilisation had a central authority, likely administered by rich traders and merchants instead of a monarchy. The absence of a standing army further supports this conclusion. Economic Activities During the IVC ​ Agriculture: Agriculture was the most important economic activity during the IVC, with a surplus of agriculture being the base for the development of the civilisation. ○​ Crops: The people of the Indus Valley cultivated various crops, including wheat, cotton, barley, peas, sesame, mustard, and rai. Cotton was referred to as sindon by outsiders, meaning it originated in the Sindhu Valley (Indus Valley). Cotton was native to the Indian subcontinent. ○​ Rice: Although not a staple food, rice was grown in Lothal and Rangpur. The first cultivation of rice in India occurred in the Allahabad region. ○​ Millets: Millets were also grown in some areas of the Indus Valley. ​ Industries: Besides agriculture, several industries thrived in the IVC: ○​ Textile Industry: The textile industry, particularly in Harappa and Mohenjodaro, was very significant, supported by the cultivation of cotton. ○​ Ornament Industry: The ornament industry was also present, with Chanhudaro known for bead making and Kalibangan for bangle making.  Page 13 ○​ Shipbuilding: Shipbuilding was also an important industry, especially in ports like Lothal and Allahdino, facilitating trade with other regions. ○​ Artisan Industry: Artisans were skilled in creating pottery, sculptures, and seals. ​ Trade: The Indus Valley people had extensive trade relations with far flung areas. ○​ Trading Partners: They traded with Oman, Bahrain (Dilman), Mesopotamia, Sumer, Magan (Persian Gulf Coast), and Afghanistan. ○​ Trade Routes: Sea routes were used for trade with Oman, while land routes may have been used for trade with Mesopotamia. ​ Metals and Stones: The Indus Valley people had knowledge of various metals and stones. ○​ Metals: They were aware of copper, tin, bronze, gold, and silver. ○​ Semi-precious Stones: They used semi precious stones like amethyst, carnelian, and lapis lazuli. ​ Summary: The economy of the Indus Valley Civilisation was diverse, including agriculture, various industries, extensive trade networks and knowledge of metals and stones. Social Organisation During the IVC ​ Matriarchal Society: Most historians believe that the Indus Valley society was matriarchal, where females held the authority. This is supported by the abundance of mother goddess images found in Indus towns. ​ Income Inequality: There was income inequality in Indus Valley towns, with single, double, and triple-story houses, but there was no socio-economic stratification. The society was open, allowing for social mobility. ​ Fashion and Cosmetics: Indus Valley people were aware of their aesthetic appearance, using a variety of cosmetics and ornaments. ○​ Ornaments: They used necklaces, waistbands, bangles, and finger rings. ○​ Cosmetics: They used soap, lipstick, kajal (kohl), and eyeliner, with cinnabar, a mercury ore, used as a main ingredient for lipstick. They also used sindur (vermilion). ○​ Tincture: They also used tincture as an antiseptic for healing wounds. ​ Summary: The society was likely matriarchal, with no socio-economic stratification, and they were fashionable and aware of personal aesthetics. Religious Practices During the IVC ​ Seals: Seals were small, geometrically shaped objects, often made of soft river stone (steatite). They were pictographic in nature, with pictures and symbols representing religious beliefs. ​ Proto-Shiva (Pashupati Seal): The Pashupati Seal is a famous example of Indus Valley religious beliefs. ○​ Description: It depicts a figure with three horns, sitting in a yogic posture, surrounded by animals. ○​ Interpretation: This figure is believed to be a proto-Shiva, an early form of the Hindu god Shiva, known as the deity of animals. ​ Nature Worship: Nature worship was also present, evident from the depictions of bulls (associated with Lord Shiva) and peepal leaves on seals. ​ Mother Goddess: The most abundant religious image was that of the mother goddess, highlighting the importance of female deities.  Page 14 ​ Shamanism: Shamanism was also practiced, evidenced by the use of amulets to ward off evil. This indicates a belief in spirits and ghosts. ​ Summary: The religious practices of the Indus Valley Civilisation included the worship of male deities like proto-Shiva, female deities, nature worship, and shamanism. Burial Practices During the IVC ​ No Uniformity: There was no uniformity in burial practices across the Indus Valley Civilisation. ​ Types of Burials: The burial practices included: ○​ Fractional burial: Leaving the dead body to be fed by birds and animals, then burying the remaining bones. ○​ Pot burial: Burying bones in a pot. ○​ Full burial: Burying the entire body. ○​ Full cremation: Cremation of the entire body. ○​ Double burial: Cremation of two bodies together. ​ Burial Goods: Often, daily objects used by the deceased were buried with them, indicating a belief in an afterlife where these items would be needed. ​ Summary: The burial practices were varied, with no uniformity across the civilization but, they often included burying daily objects with the deceased, indicating a belief in otherworldly things. Decline of the IVC ​ Debate among Historians: There has been much debate among historians about the reasons for the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation. ​ Rejected Aryan Invasion Theory: The theory that an Aryan invasion led to the decline was rejected because it is now proven that the Aryan arrival and IVC disappearance are separated by a 300 years gap. ​ Climatic Phenomena: The more accepted theory now attributes the decline to climatic phenomena, particularly inundation and frequent flooding. ​ Disappearance: By 1800 BC, the Indus Valley Civilisation completely disappeared from the Indian subcontinent. ​ Summary: The Indus Valley Civilisation declined due to inundation and frequent flooding by 1800 BC, rejecting the older theory that the decline was caused by the Aryan invasion. Chalcolithic Culture ​ Meaning: The term chalcolithic is derived from chalco (copper) and lithic (stone), signifying a period where copper and stone tools were used together. ​ Timeline: Although the use of copper and stone began in the Neolithic phase, the dominant phase of the chalcolithic culture was between 1800-1500 BC, after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilisation. ​ Rural Culture: Unlike the urban nature of the Indus Valley Civilisation, the chalcolithic culture was rural, with people dependent on agriculture, animal husbandry, stock raising, and fishing. They also produced textiles and some metal crafts. ​ Burial Practices: One of the main developments of this period was the development of the uniform practice of burying the dead. Bodies were generally buried north-south.  Page 15 ​ Copper Mining: Copper was the most widely used metal during this phase, obtained from mines in Ahar, Gilund, Khetri, and Jhunjhunu. ​ Important Pockets: Important pockets of the chalcolithic culture included Ahar-Banas (Rajasthan), Kayat (Madhya Pradesh), Malwa (MP, Gujarat), and Savalda (Maharashtra). ​ Summary: The chalcolithic culture signifies the use of copper and stone tools and was a rural culture focused on agriculture, animal husbandry, and fishing with copper as most widely used metal. This period also saw the development of uniform burial practices. Advent of Aryans in India ​ Origins: The Aryans were central Asians, belonging to various tribes. They came from central Asia or the steppe grasslands. ​ Motivations: The Aryans were nomadic and pastoralist, with cattle as their most important wealth. They came to India in search of good pasture land for their cattle. ​ Aryan Linguistic Community: The term Aryan refers to a linguistic community, meaning people who spoke Aryan group of languages, which had sound similarities (like Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati). ​ Arrival: The Aryans started to arrive in the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BC. ​ Superiority: The Aryans considered themselves to be a superior race. ​ Conquest: They defeated the indigenous population using superior bronze tools (including chain mail and helmets) and by employing horses and horse-driven chariots, which provided swiftness to their army. ​ Geographical Concentration: Initially, the Aryans concentrated in the northwest part of the Indian subcontinent, including areas like Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (NWFP), Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Himachal, western UP, and north Rajasthan. ​ Vedic Composition: The Aryans began composing Vedas in Sanskrit, with the Rigveda being the first and most important source of information about the early Aryans. ○​ Oral Tradition (Shruti): Initially, the Vedas were oral compositions, known as shruti. ○​ Geographical References: The Rigveda mentions Himalayan mountains as Himavant Parvat and Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers) (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej, and Saraswati). ​ Summary: The Aryans were a linguistic community from central Asia who arrived around 1500 BC. They defeated indigenous populations using superior weapons and established themselves in the northwest of India. They started composing Vedas in Sanskrit, initially in oral form, with Rigveda being the first and most important source of information. Early Vedic Period (Rigvedic Period) (1500-1000 BC): Economy ​ Importance of Cattle: Cattle was the most important economic wealth of early Aryans. ○​ Terms for Cattle: The importance of cattle is highlighted through words like gopa (cowherd), gopati (master of cow), duhitr (milker of cow), godhuma (wheat grown in cow dung), godhi (time when cows return), aghanya (not to be killed), and gavishti (search for cows). ​ Battles for Cattle: Battles were frequently fought for securing a large number of cattle. ​ Agriculture: Besides cattle, important agricultural commodities included barley (yava) and wheat (godhuma).  Page 16 ​ Taxation System: There was no formal tax system, but voluntary contributions (bali or bhag) were made to the chief of the community. ​ Summary: The economy of the early Vedic period was primarily based on cattle rearing and agriculture. Cattle was a very important economic wealth and battles were often fought to secure them. Taxation was non-formal with voluntary contributions to the chief. Conclusion This detailed overview provides a comprehensive understanding of the Indus Valley Civilisation, Chalcolithic Culture, Advent of the Aryans, and the Economy of the Early Vedic Period. From the centralised administration and trade networks of the IVC to the rural and metal-based aspects of the Chalcolithic period, and the arrival of the Aryans with their linguistic background and early Vedic economy based on cattle, we've explored key periods that shaped the history of the Indian subcontinent. ALL DONE  Page 17 CLASS 4 -POLITY, SOCIETY AND RELIGION DURING THE EARLY AND LATER VEDIC PERIODS- Polity During the Early Vedic Period Political Organisation: During the early Vedic period, the head of each tribal community, which were collectively called Aryans, was known as the Rajan. These Aryan tribes were not just one group but many from Central Asia. Rajan was the chief of the tribal community, and since there were many tribes, each had its own Rajan. Assistance to Rajan: The Rajan was assisted by political assemblies, mainly the Sabha, Samiti, and Vidatha. Responsibilities of the Rajan The most important job of the Rajan was to organise battles, especially for securing cattle, which was a major form of wealth. This battle for cattle was a recurring theme, reflecting the period's economy and power struggles. The Political Assemblies Sabha: This was the most decisive assembly. It included older members of the society, both male and female. While exclusive in size, it was inclusive in gender. It was considered a very important decision-making body. Samiti: This was a larger assembly, making it less decisive than the Sabha. It was inclusive in number but exclusive in gender, as only males were part of this assembly. Vidatha: This was a smaller, cohesive assembly that included both males and females. Its exact function is not very clear, but it was likely involved in religious and ritual decisions. Some also suggest it dealt with pastoral and agricultural decisions. The Dasarajna War Background: The Dasarajna War was a significant conflict of the time, involving ten kings. It was fought between Aryan tribes, and indigenous rulers, as the Aryans expanded their control in India. Bharat Tribe: The Bharat tribe was the most powerful Aryan tribe of this time. The Bharat tribe was led by a ruler named Sudas, who had to make a crucial decision about who would be the head priest. The Conflict: The coveted position of head priest was given to Vasist Rishi, not Vishvamitra. This decision humiliated Vishvamitra. Vishvamitra then persuaded five non-Aryan kings and five Aryan kings to fight against Sudas.  Page 18 The War: The war was fought on the banks of the river Parushni (modern-day Ravi), and Sudas defeated the ten kings. After his victory, the territory of the Bharata tribe gained prominence, contributing to the name Bharat. Society During the Early Vedic Period Authority System Patriarchy and Matriarchy: Authority in society and family was based on either patriarchy (dominance of males) or matriarchy (dominance of females). Lineage: Lineage determined how property and titles were transferred