BMS Final Exam Study Guide PDF

[BMS Final Exam Study Guide ] - pH - scale of 0-14 - most acidic at 1 and least acidic at 14 - log scale, 10x - pH \> 7 basic - pH \< 7 acidic - Four elements most prevalent in biology - Hydrogen (62) - Oxygen (25) - Carbon (9) - N...

[BMS Final Exam Study Guide ] - pH - scale of 0-14 - most acidic at 1 and least acidic at 14 - log scale, 10x - pH \> 7 basic - pH \< 7 acidic - Four elements most prevalent in biology - Hydrogen (62) - Oxygen (25) - Carbon (9) - Nitrogen (1) - Carbs and their structures/compositions - Contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio - There are three of them: - Monosaccharides: 1 ring of carbons (glucose, fructose) - Disaccharides: 2 rings of carbons (sucrose) - Polysaccharides: many rings of carbons (glycogen, starch, cellulose) -  - Lipid structures- cholesterol, fatty acid, phospholipids, tryglycerides, saturated vs unsaturated - Fatty acid: chain of carbon and hydrogen with carboxyl group at end - Triglyceride: 3 fatty acids attached to glycerol - Phospholipid: 2 fatty acids attached to glycerol - Steroid: 4 fused rings  - Saturated fatty acid - No double bonds (completely saturated) - Well packed and solid at room temp -  saturated fatty acids - Unsaturated fatty acids - At least one double bond - Has kinked structure that inhibits close packing, makes it liquid at room temp - Cis and trans - Double bond in the cis (chair)  - DNA: structures, bases, hydrogen bonds, phosphodiester bonds - Composed of nucleotides - Sugar, nitrogenous bases, phosphate group - 4 bases - A, t, c, g - Nucleotides are linked by phosphodiester bonds to form polynucleotides (dehydration causes that) - Two antiparallel polynucleotide strains coiled to form double helix - Has phosphate sugar bones on backbone - RNA: structures, bases, phosphodiester bonds; MRNA - Uses uracil instead of thymine - Four bases - RNA is single stranded - Protein: structure, amino acids, peptide bonds, primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary - Proteins are composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide - There are 20 essential amino acids - Primary: amino acid sequence - Secondary: alpha helices or beta sheets - Tertiary: 3D fold (globular or fibrous) - Quaternary: multiple polypeptides together to form one structure -  - Central Dogma: Replication, Transcription, Translation - DNA makes RNA makes MRNA - DNA polymerase: replicates DNA (in nucleus) - RNA polymerase: transcribes DNA into RNA (in nucleus) - Ribosome: translates mRNA into polypeptide (in cytosol) - - Organelles - ER: secreted proteins are folded; proteins are glycosylated and disulfide bonds are formed; lipids are formed; proteins and lipids then go to the Golgi - Golgi apparatus: trims and glycosylates proteins; packages proteins and lipids and sends them to their final destination, such as the cell membrane - Mitochondria: make ATP for cell - Lysosome: contains digestive enzymes, breaks down old mitochondria and other debris - Peroxisome: detoxifies cells, do oxidative reactions such as breaking down fats - Nucleus: where DNA is stored - Nuclear envelope: the membrane that separates nucleus from the cytosol - Ribosomes: proteins - Nucleolus: a distinct region in nucleus where rRNA is transcribed, ribosomal units break-down - Plasma membrane: separates inner and outer cell - Endocytosis: Uptake of materials from the exterior of the cell. A segment of the plasma membrane folds inward - Exocytosis: Proteins in vesicle are released to the exterior of cell as membrane of the vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane. Highly polarized - Mitosis -  - Meiosis - homologous recombination, "crossing over", synapse, tetrad - Hallmarks of cancer - Evading growth suppressor - Deregulating cellular energetics - Sustaining proliferative signaling - Enabling replicative immortality - Genome instability and mutation - Activating invasion and metastasis - Tumor-promoting inflammation - Inducing angiogenesis - Resisting cell death - Avoiding immune destruction - Cancer Vocab - Tumor: abnormal growth of body tissue - Malignant: abnormal cell growth that invades neighboring tissue and spreads - Benign: abnormal cell growth that doesn't spread (freckles, moles, skin tags, liver spots, seborrheic keratosis) - Tumor-suppressor gene: stops cell growth - Proto-oncogene: promotes cell growth - Oncogene: mutated proto-oncogene that causes cancer - Carcinogen: substance that promotes cancer development - Physical: UV rays - Biological: viruses - Chemical: heavy metals, hormones, asbestos, plastics - Metastasis: the spread and colonization of cancer cells in a new location - Apoptosis: programmed cell death (tidy death to protect the body) - Genetics - Vocab - Independent assortment: alleles for different traits segregate into haploid gametes independently for other traits (genes that are close together on a chromosome do not show that) - Nondisjunction: genome mutation; trisomy, monosomy\-\-\-\--the failure of chromosomes to disjoin normally during meiosis - Codominance: both alleles expressed in phenotype (i.e blood type (AB)) - Incomplete dominance: in-between phenotype for heterozygotes - Incomplete penetrance: individual with genotype may not have phenotype - Variable expressivity: individuals with same genotypes have different phenotypes - Epistasis: expression of phenotype of one gene is controlled by another gene\-\-- albino (prevents production of melanin) - Mosaic: more than one genotype (women are functionally because we have 2 X's) - Chimera: if fraternal twins zygotes fuse, this creates one chimeric individual - Multigenic: phenotypes that are controlled by multiple loci - Punnett squares - Mendel's Laws of Inheritance - Gene mutation, Chromosome mutation, Genome mutation - Gene: silent, missense, nonsense - Chromosome: duplication, deletion, inversion, translocation - Genome: trisomy, monosomy (almost always embryonic lethal) - Digestive System (organs and what they do) - Mouth: intake and mastication of food, mixes food with saliva - Pharynx: throat-selectively allows food into the esophagus - Esophagus: connects pharynx and stomach - Stomach: mixes and macerates food, reservoir for food, kills bacteria, low pH - Small intestines: digestion and absorption of nutrients - Large intestines: absorption of water, ions, vitamins and expulsion of waste - Nutrition - Macronutrients - Carbohydrates - Fats - Proteins: complete proteins from animals, incomplete from animals - Micronutrients - Vitamins - Fat soluble: require dietary lipids and bile salts for adequate absorption - Accumulate in fat (adek) - Water soluble: dissolve in bodily fluids and go through urine - Vitamin c and B - Minerals - Cardiovascular - Heart chambers: - Right atrium - Right ventricle - Left atrium - Left ventricle - Veins: thin-walled things that carry O2 DEPLETED blood towards the heart - Arteries: thick wall things that carry 02 rich blood away from the heart - Capillaries are very strong small vessels that are connections between arteries and veins - Pulmonary artery carries deoxy blood from heart to lungs - Pulmonary vein carries oxy blood form heart to lungs - Systemic circ carries oxy blood from heart to body and deoxy blood back to the heart - Coronary: blood vessels supply the heart, blockage of arteries cause diseases - Flow of the blood through the heart - Enter super vena cava - right atrium - right ventricle - Pulmonary artery - Lungs - Pulmonary vein - Left atrium - Left ventricle - Back out to aorta to rest of body - Composition of blood - 55% plasma, 45% rbc, 1% platelets - Formed elements - Formed in red marrow - In hip and sternum - Diffusion at capillary - Oxygen and nutrients diffuse out, Co2 and waste diffuse in - Hemoglobin - Two alpha and two beta chains - Carries oxygen bound to heme - Fetal hemoglobin has more of an affinity to O2 - Gases that bind to hemoglobin: o2, co2, Co - Respiratory System - Organs - Nose - Pharynx - Larynx - Trachea - Bronchi - Lungs - Inhalation: breathe in ; active motion; muscle contractions - Exhalation: breathe out; passive action; muscle relaxation - Diaphragm - During inhalation, diaphragm contracts, changing from a bowled structure to a flat structure - Urinary System - Organs - Kidneys - Ureters - Bladder - Urethra - Nephron - Functional unit of the kidneys - Glomerular filtration - Passive, non selective process - Molecules less that 3 cm pushed into nephron - Tubular reabsorption - From tubular fluid to blood - Tubular secretion - From blood to tubule - Active transport of large wastes from blood to tubule - Pathogens - Bacteria: prok - Fungus: euk - Protozoa: euk - Viruses: not alive - Prions: not alive - Immune systems - Innate immune systems - Responds quickly to pathogens, complement (proteins), phagocytes, inflammation - Adaptive immune system - Uses T and B Cells - Slower response - Made for specific infecting pathogen - Order of events during infection - Somatic recombo - B looks for surface receptors - Once match is found, activated B cells divide - Daughter B cells undergo somatic hypermutation - Tighter binding leads to affinity maturation - Daughter B undergoes isotype switching for plasma cells - B Cells become a memory - Difference between T and B cells - B Cells - Two copies of two chains - Become plasma cells - Somatic recombo in the bone marrow - Undergoes somatic hypermutation and isotype switching - T Cells - One copy of two chains - Somatic recombo happens in thymus - Activated t cells become cytotoxic t cells - Interact with MHC molecules displaying peptides - Lymphatic system - Organs - Tonsils - Thymus - Spleen - Appendix - Lymph nodes - Peyers patch of small intestines - Lymph fluid composition - T and B cells (lymphocytes) and macrophages - Immune response in lymph nodes -