BIOS 251 Exam 1 Study Outline - Week 1 PDF

BIOS 251 Exam 1 Study Outline **[Week 1 ]** **C145 -- Terminology and Anatomical Positions** - **Anatomy**: The study of body structure - **Physiology** : The study of body parts and how they interact with one another - Structure and function complement one another - Examples:...

BIOS 251 Exam 1 Study Outline **[Week 1 ]** **C145 -- Terminology and Anatomical Positions** - **Anatomy**: The study of body structure - **Physiology** : The study of body parts and how they interact with one another - Structure and function complement one another - Examples: Red Blood cells, Pectus excavatum **Anatomical Position** - reference point for all directions and regions of the human body. - Subject faces the observer while standing erect, with arms at both sides of the body, palms of the hands facing forward, and feet flat on the floor. **Anatomical Regions:** 1. **Axial**- represents core of body, includes all structures except the upper and lower appendages (arms and legs) - Cephalic (head) - Cervical (neck) - Thoracic (chest) - Abdominal (belly) - Pelvic (hip) - Pubic (groin) - Back of the neck (nuchal) 2. **Appendicular** -- includes upper and lower appendages - - Axillary (armpit) - Brachial (upper arm) - Antecubital (front of the elbow) - Antebrachial (forearm) - Carpal (wrist) - Palmar (palm) - Pollex (thumb) - Digital or phalangeal (fingers) - Femoral (thigh) - Patellar (anterior surface of the knee) - Crural (leg) - Pedal (foot) - Metatrsal/tarsal (ankle) **Directional Terms** **Ventral** - Toward the front[\*](https://items.adtalem.edapt.ai/remarks.xhtml) or belly\ **Dorsal** - Toward the back or spine **Anterior** - Toward the ventral side **Posterior** -Toward the dorsal side **Cephalic** -Toward the head or superior end\ **Rostral** - Toward the forehead or nose\ **Caudal** - Toward the tail or inferior end **Superior** - Above\ **Inferior** - Below **Medial** - Toward the median plane\ **Lateral** - Away from the median plane **Proximal** - Closer to the point of attachment or origin\ **Distal** - Farther from the point of attachment or origin **Ipsilateral** - On the same side of the body (right or left)\ **Contralateral** - On opposite sides of the body (right and left) **Superficial** - Closer to the body surface\ **Deep** - Farther from the body surface **C146 Body Cavities, Planes, and Sections** - Body cavities act as compartments within the human body and have **two** basic functions: - To protect vital internal organs from accidental shock - To allow for any possible change in shape and size of organs, while still maintaining the organ system's integrity - The human body contains **four** main body cavities: 1. **Dorsal cavity** -- contains both the cranial and vertebral cavities - **Cranial** (contains the brain) - **Vertebral** (contains the spinal cord) 2. **Thoracic** (contains the heart and the lungs) - **Pericardial cavity** -- surrounds the heart - **Parietal cavity** - surrounds the lungs 3. **Abdominopelvic** (contains all abdominal and pelvic organs) 4. The Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are separated by the diaphragm  Body cavities are subdivided further based on the organs they house. - **Subdivisions of the Thoracic cavity** - **Two** **Pleural** **cavities** -- each of which surrounds a lung - Each lung sits on either side of the **mediastinum**, which is an area in the middle of the thorax that contains the heart, portions of the trachea, the esophagus, and several important vessels. - **Pericardial** cavity, which encloses the heart - **Subdivisions of the Abdominopelvic cavity** - **Abdominal cavity** - Contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver - Superior region of the cavity - **Pelvic cavity** - Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum - Inferior region of the cavity All body cavities are lined by serous membranes, with are a two layered tissue that is lubricated by a serum-like fluid. These membranes also cover organs. - Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions - **Four Abdominopelvic Quadrants** - Right Upper quadrant - Left Upper quadrant - Right lower quadrant - Left lower quadrant - **Nine Abdominopelvic Regions** - Right hypochondriac region - Epigastric region - Left hypochondriac region - Right lumbar region - Umbilical region - Left lumbar region - Right iliac (inguinal) region - Hypogastric (pubic) region - Left iliac (inguinal) region **Body Planes and Sections** - **Body Planes** - invisible flat surfaces (dividing lines) that separate organs, structures, or the human body into sections - **Plane**- Refers to an axis, and 3 planes are needed in order to describe any 3-D object. - **Section** - A single view of one plane - **Transverse Plane**- a plane that runs horizontally. It separates the body or structure into superior and inferior portions - **Frontal Plane** -A plane separates the body or structure into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions. - **Sagittal Plane**- plane separates a body or structure into left and right portions. - **Midsagittal** plane- A sagittal plane that runs perfectly down the midline of the body (or structure) and divides it into equal left and right portions - **Parasagittal** plane - A sagittal plane that is lateral to the midline of the body (or structure) **C147 Organization, Systems Overview, and Levels of Organization** - Levels of organization from smallest to largest: - **Atoms** **Molecules** **Cells** **Tissues** **Organs** **Organ** **system** **Organism** **Overview of Organ Systems.** Be able to describe general functions of each system, as well as a few of the organs located in each system. - 11 organ systems: - **Integumentary system** -- protects the body, regulates temp, synthesizes Vit D, and Excretes waste - **Skeletal system** -- provides structural support, protects internal organs, provides movement, plays major role in blood formation, and stores calcium - **Muscular system** -- provides movement, maintains posture, produces heat - **Lymphatic system** -- balances fluids, transports dietary lipids, and plays a role in immunity - **Respiratory system** -- gas exchange, olfaction, and sound production - **Urinary system** -- eliminates waste, regulated blood volume, pressure, composition, and pH - **Nervous system** -- controls other body systems, allow for communication between systems, and processes sensory information - **Endocrine system** -- regulates metabolism, growth, and reproduction through the production and use of hormones - **Cardiovascular system** -- transports gases, nutrients, hormones, waste, and distributes heat - **Digestive system** -- breaks down food to absorbable nutrients and rids the body of waste - **Reproductive systems** (male and female) -- produces gametes, sex hormones, and produces and maintains secondary sex characteristics. Nurtures and develops a fetus **Homeostasis** - **Homeostasis** is the process of all organ systems working to keep internal environment constant and stable. - **Set point** -- average acceptable value for a variable. Homeostasis mechanism work to keep values at the set point. - **Components of Feedback Mechanisms** - **Sensor** (Receptor) - Monitors and detects any changes in the environment - Responds to stimuli (something that causes a change in a controlled variable) - Sends sensory information via sensory neurons (input; afferent pathway) to the control center - **Control center** (Integration center) - Determines the set point (acceptable range) at which variables need to be maintained - Receives and processes information from the sensors - Constructs a meaningful response to the original stimulus - Instructions (an output; efferent pathway) are sent to target cells, tissues, organs, or organ systems via motor neurons - **Target** (Effector) - Receives instructions from the control center, and then carries out the instructions - Provides the appropriate response based on information from the control center - Response will either reduce (negative feedback) or enhance (positive feedback) the effects of the original stimulus. - **Homeostatic Feedback Mechanisms** - **Negative Feedback** - primary and most common mechanism for homeostatic regulation - "negative feedback loop" essentially reduces, shuts off, or counterbalances the original stimulus that caused the homeostatic imbalance. - It causes the given variable to change in the opposite direction of the initial change, and ultimately brings the system back to homeostasis. - Example: Temperature,blood glucose levels, blood volume/pH/composition, blood calcium regulation - **Positive Feedback** - The response of the effector works to further increase the change that was caused by the stimulus - May enhance, exaggerate, or amplify the original stimulus - Examples: giving birth, blood clotting **[Week 2 - Chemistry]** **C148 -- Introduction to Atoms, Chemical Bonds, and Inorganic Compounds** - **Element** -- simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties - **Atom** -- the smallest particle of an element that still has the properties of that element. - Atomic Terminology - **Subatomic particles** atoms are made from: - **Protons** +1 charge - **Neutron** 0 charge - **Electrons** -1 charge; much smaller mass than protons or neutrons The protons and neutrons exist as a packed nucleus in the center of the atom while electrons are found outside the nucleus as in the image below. - **Atomic number**: Number of protons in an atom - **Mass number**: Total number of protons + neutrons in an atom - **Atomic weight**: average mass of an atom of that element - **Isotopes** -- changing the number of neutrons will change the mass number and anatomic weight. Changing the number of neutrons is known as an isotope. - **Ions** -- changing the number of electrons will change the electrical charge of the atom. This change in the number of electrons is known as an ion. - **Molecules** - Atoms can react with either atoms of the same element or atoms of different elements to create molecules. - Molecules are atoms held together by electron-based interactions called bonds (electrons interact with other atoms to form bonds since they are the outermost subatomic particle). - **Valence electrons** are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom that are the most important for chemical reactions. - **Ions** - Ions are atoms or molecules with an electrical charge which arises from an imbalance of protons and electrons. - Protons \> Electrons = Cation (+) - Electrons \> Protons = Anion (-) - **Electrolytes** -  Electrolytes are any substance that gives off or forms ions when dissolved in water.  **Chemical Bonding** - Molecules are held together by forces called intermolecular bonds. - Three main types of bonding: - **Ionic Bonds** - Form between cations (positive charge) and anions (negative charge) - Forms by the **transfer** of electrons - Ex: NaCl - **Covalent Bonds** (strongest) - Atoms **share** electrons allowing each atom to have a completed outer shell. - **Polar covalent bond** -- where electrons are shared unequally. - **Nonpolar covalent bond --** where the electrons are shared equally. - **Hydrogen Bonds** (weakest) - Hydrogen bonds result from attraction of oppositely charged **parts** of molecules - Important to physiology **Inorganic Compounds and Solutions** - **Solution Terminology** - **Mixture** -- a combination of more than one compound, physically mixed together.2 types of mixtures: 1. **Homogenous**- do not separate over time and cannot be separated by most membranes, also known as solutions. (ex: salt & water) 2. **Heterogenous** -- not uniform in their composition (ex: sand & water) - **Solution**: a homogenous mixture of two or more substances; components cannot be distinguished visually from one another. - **Solute**: the dissolved substance - **Solvent**: the dissolving agent - **Water and Salts** - **Properties of Water:** - Water is able to dissolve many substances - Water molecules are attracted to other water molecules (through hydrogen bonds). This property is known as cohesion. - Water molecules are able to stick to nearby molecules in a process known as adhesion. - Water has a high heat capacity (ability to absorb heat) - Water can participate in many chemical reactions. - **Salts** - Dissolve well in water - Hydrogen bonds allow cations and anions to be separately stabilized - **Acids and Bases** - **Proton**: H+ ion - **Acid**: donate an H+ ion - **Acidosis** -- the term given to blood that has a pH lower than 7.35. This can be caused by an accumulation of CO~2~. - **Base**: accepts an H+ ion - **Alkalosis** -- the term given to blood that has a pH greater than 7.45. This can be caused by an increased loss of CO~2~. - **pH and Buffers** - The **pH** is the measure of proton (H+) concentration in a solution. The pH scale is used to measure the acidity or basicity of a solution - pH values fall between 0 and 14. - **Acids** have low pH values that range from 0 to less than 7 - **Bases** have higher pH values that range from greater than 7 to 14. - A pH of 7 is neutral - A **buffer solution** resists large pH changes when an acid or base is added to the solution. The buffer then helps prevent significant changes in pH. **C149 -- Organic Chemistry** - Organic Chemistry = study of carbon-based structures - **Carbon** - Atom most vital for life, it has 4 unpaired valence electrons (available for bonding). This allows each Carbon to make 4 bonds. - With the help of other important atoms, give rise to **functional groups**; structures that give a particular compound certain properties and dictate what reactions the molecule can participate in - **Functional Groups** - Determine properties such as solubility, reactivity, and consistency. Compounds containing a given functional groups tend to share properties.  - **Organic Biological Macromolecules** - Numerous substances that are produced by a living organism (i.e.: a cell) - **Carbohydrates**, **Proteins**, **Lipids**, and **Nucleic acids** - **Monomers & Polymers** - **Monomers** - Small molecular building blocks that can exist alone or be linked to others of the same type to form polymers. - Examples: **Monosaccharides**, **Amino** **Acids**, and **Nucleotides** - **Polymers** - A large molecule constructed from many small molecules - Formation of a polymer = polymerization - Example: DNA - **Hydrolysis and Dehydration** - Both reactions involve water - **Hydrolysis**= breaking down of organic molecules by adding water - **Dehydration**= building of organic molecules by removing water - **Dehydration Synthesis**= The use of water synthesis to create new bonds in the formation of important compounds in the body. **Carbohydrates** - **Monomers**: Monosaccharides (ex: glucose, fructose, galactose) - **Functions** of carbohydrates - Primary function: Source of energy - Cellular respiration - Simple sugar (**monosaccharide**) can be linked together to form more complex carbohydrates: disaccharides and polysaccharides - **Monosaccharides** - Monosaccharides are simple sugars that have an unbranched chain of 3-8 carbon atoms and have either a ketone or an aldehyde functional group. - Examples of monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. - **Disaccharides** - 2 monosaccharides joined together - A disaccharide forms when the hydroxyl group from one monosaccharide reacts with the hydroxyl group of another monosaccharide. - Common Disaccharides include sucrose, maltose, and lactose. - **Polysaccharides** - Complex carbohydrates, are formed from the linkage of many monosaccharides - Two of the most common polysaccharides are starch and cellulose. - Two types of starch are amylose and amylopectin - Cellulose is also made of many glucose molecules linked together with each glucose being rotated 180 degrees. This particular structure means that cellulose is to stable for our body to break down. This material is used in plants for their structure **Lipids** - **Monomers**: Fatty acids & glycerol - Long term energy storage - Key structural component - Biomolecule made mainly of hydrocarbons (carbons and hydrogens) and are insoluble in water - **Types of Lipids** - **Fatty Acids** - Contains a long hydrocarbon carbon chain attached to a carboxylic acid group at one end. While the carboxylic acid group is soluble in water, the long carbon chain makes the fatty acid insoluble in water. - Single or double carbon-to-carbon bonds - **Triglycerides** - Made of three fatty acids bound to a glycerol molecules - characteristic ester (COOC) functional group is formed when a fatty acid is linked to an OH group from the glycerol. - Vegetable oil, butter, lard - **Functions**: energy storage, fat protection for internal organs, fat insulation, maintenance of body temp, digestion of fayt-soluble vitamins - **Steroids** - Have distinctive-ring structure - Examples: cholesterol (parent steroid), prednisone - **Hormones - cortisol, progesterone, estrogens, testosterone,** - Class of lipids that give rise to key physiological effects in the body - Some hormones have 4-ring structure like steroids - Use of Lipids to form Cell Membranes - **Phospholipid bilayer -** made from lipids to create a hydrophobic layer creating a barrier between the water outside (extracellular) of a cell and the water inside of a cell (intracellular) - Dietary lipids - **Saturated fats** -- carbon chain is full of a complement of hydrogen atoms and most of the time made of single bonds - **Solid** at room temperature - **Straight** linear appearance The single carbon bond is an important to identify saturated fats. - **Unsaturated fats** -- have one or more double bonds between carbons indicating a missing hydrogen atom - Soft or liquid at room temp  **Nucleic Acids** - A biomolecule that allows both plants and animal to pass on their genetic code to future generations - **Monomers**: Nucleotides - **Nucleotides** - Composed of a nitrogenous (nitrogen based) base, a five-carbon sugar (either Deoxyribose for DNA or Ribose for RNA), and a phosphate group - Purines: adenine (A) and guanine (G), and - Pyrimidines: cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).  - **DNA** - **Function**: carries out genetic code. - Contains many genes (which are responsible for making proteins) - Deoxyribose sugar combines with phosphate to create DNA backbone - Forms double helix - A-T, G-C base pairs **(Apple Tree; Car Garage)** - **RNA** - Key for expressing genetic differences - Forms shorter, single strands - Ribose sugar - A-U, G-C base pairs - mRNA (messenger RNA) - transfers the gene code out of the nucleus - tRNA - transports the building blocks of proteins (amino acids) block by block - rRNA (Ribosomal RNA)- physically builds the proteins from amino acids **Proteins** - **Monomers**: Amino Acids (20 different types) - The composition and structure of a given protein determines the function and behavior of the protein. - Proteins digest alcohol, build biomolecules, fight infections, and many other important functions. - **Complete proteins** -- have all essential amino acids present. Typically found in animal-based proteins. Ex: Poultry - **Incomplete proteins** -- are missing at least one essential amino acid. Typically found in plant-based proteins (with the exception of soy-based proteins). Ex: Beans - **Amino Acids** - Two categories: Essential and Non-essential 1. **Essential** (9 essential amino acids.): Cannot be synthesized by the body 2. **Non-essential**: can be synthesized by the body - Building blocks of proteins - Have two functional groups: an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) - Each amino acid has a unique side chain (R group) - Our bodies use 20 different amino acids to make the peptides and proteins in our bodies - **Polypeptides and Proteins** - To form a protein, amino acids are linked together by a peptide bond. - A chain of two amino acids is a **dipeptide** - A chain of many amino acids is a **polypeptide** - **Protein** = a chain of more than 50 amino acids - Polypeptide/protein structures are built in the ribosome of the cell with a specific sequence. This sequence is key to the structure, and determine both the shape and function of the protein or polypeptide. 3. **Primary Protein Structure** - Refers to the order is the order of amino acids held together by peptide bonds 4. **Secondary Structure** - 3 common types of secondary structures: alpha helix, beta-pleated sheet, and triple helix. - Alpha-helix: Held in place by hydrogen bonds, this forms a tight coil that resembles a telephone cord. - Beta-pleated sheet: Polypeptides are held side-by-side by a hydrogen bond between the peptide chains. - Triple helix: Three chains are braided together. 3. **Tertiary Structure** - Involves the attractions and repulsions between the side-chain groups of the amino acids in the polypeptide chains resulting in 3-D structure. 4. **Quaternary Structure** - Finally, certain other proteins are made up of subunits of similar or dissimilar types of the polypeptide chains.​ - These subunits interact with each other in a specific manner to give rise to the so-called quaternary structure of the protein​.