biochemistry_tests_in_english_for_preparing_midterm4_.docx

\# Anabolism is called: -- breakdown of organic substances -- transfer of compounds through membranes -- breakdown of inorganic substances \+ biosynthesis of compounds from simple molecules \# Catabolism is called: \+ hydrolysis of biopolymers in the body -- biosynthesis of complex substances...

\# Anabolism is called: -- breakdown of organic substances -- transfer of compounds through membranes -- breakdown of inorganic substances \+ biosynthesis of compounds from simple molecules \# Catabolism is called: \+ hydrolysis of biopolymers in the body -- biosynthesis of complex substances -- Photosynthesis -- Chemosynthesis \# Anabolic pathways include: -- decarboxylation of amino acids \+ biosynthesis of fatty acids -- Glycolysis -- Glycogenolysis \# What representatives of lipids are part of biological membranes? -- terpenoids \+ phospholipids -- triglycerides -- free fatty acid \# Properties characteristic of biological membranes: -- symmetry -- amphotericity -- rigidity \+ selective permeability \# What phase state is characteristic of membrane lipids? -- Solid -- Amorphous -- Plasma \+ Liquid crystal \# With facilitated diffusion, substances are transferred through the membrane: -- against the concentration gradient -- without the participation of membrane transport proteins \+ along the concentration gradient -- with vesicle \# Receptors for primary messengers are located on: -- mitochondrial membrane \+ plasma membrane -- lysosomal membrane -- ER membrane \# Properties characteristic of cell membranes: \+ fluidity -- poor permeability to water -- low electrical resistance -- amorphous \# Types of transport of substances through the membrane: \+ facilitated diffusion -- lateral diffusion -- axonal current -- secondary diffusion \# Exergonic reactions occur with: -- heat absorption -- energy absorption \+ decrease in standard free energy -- absorption of light \# Energy converting membranes are: -- nuclear membrane -- outer membrane of the mitochondrion -- plasma membrane \+ inner mitochondrial membrane \# Uncoupling of ETC and oxidative phosphorylation leads to: -- hypoxia \+ increase in body temperature -- hypovitaminosis -- increase ATP synthesis \# How much ATP is produced in the body through oxidative phosphorylation? -- 75% -- 50 % -- 10 % \+ 90% \# The sequence of components in the long chain of tissue respiration: -- NAD-NADP-CoQ-cytochromes -- FAD-NAD-CoQ-cytochromes \+ NAD-FMN-CoQ-cytochromes -- NAD-FMN-CoA-cytochromes \# ATP synthesis by oxidative phosphorylation is associated with: -- gluconeogenesis -- synthesis of triglycerides \+ electron transport chain -- microsomal oxidation \# The main extramitochondrial source of NADH~2~ for ETC is: -- pentose phosphate pathway -- tricarboxylic acid cycle \+ glycolysis -- pyruvate \# Which enzyme synthesizes ATP during oxidative phosphorylation? \+ ATP synthase -- creatine kinase -- phosphatase -- pyruvate dehydrogenase \# Which metabolite is utilized in the TCA cycle? -- ammonia \+ acetyl-CoA -- uric acid -- pyruvate \# The reaction of substrate phosphorylation in the TCA cycle is catalyzed by: -- citrate synthase \+ succinyl-CoA synthetase -- isocitrate dehydrogenase -- malate dehydrogenase \# The activity of which TCA cycle enzymes will be impaired in case of hypovitaminosis PP? -- citrate synthase -- fumarases \+ isocitrate dehydrogenase -- aconitase \# The transfer of electrons to oxygen is catalyzed by: \+ cytochrome oxidase -- superoxide dismutase -- catalase -- peroxidase \# Which component of ETC is inhibited by cyanide? \+ cytochrome oxidase -- NADH dehydrogenase -- KoQ -- cytochrome b \# Hormone that increase the permeability of the cell membrane to glucose: -- glucagon \+ insulin -- glucocorticoids -- thyroxine \# Which carbohydrates perform primarily a structural function? -- glycogen -- fructose \+ glycosaminoglycans -- maltose \# When galactose is phosphorylated in the liver, it forms: \+ galactose-1-phosphate -- glucose-6-phosphate -- glucose-1-phosphate -- UDP-galactose \# The main sources of glucose in the body: \+ gluconeogenesis -- glycolysis -- glycogen synthesis -- pentose phosphate pathway \# In what tissues is glucokinase activity found? \- brain -- myocardium -- kidneys \+ liver \# Galactosemia is associated with insufficient activity: -- lactase -- fructose-1,6-biphosphatase \+ hexose-1-phosphate uridylyltransferase -- lactose synthetase \# Essential fructosuria is caused by insufficient activity: \+ fructokinase -- hexokinases -- phosphofructokinase -- fructose-1-phosphate aldolase \# Congenital fructose intolerance is caused by insufficient activity: -- fructokinase -- phosphofructokinase -- fructose-1,6-biphosphatase \+ fructose-1-phosphate aldolase \# Activator of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex: -- glucagon -- FADH~2~ \+ insulin -- NADH~2~ \# The main way of pyruvate utilization in tissues is its conversion into: \+ acetyl-CoA -- lactate -- oxaloacetate -- phosphoenolpyruvate \# Which enzyme of gluconeogenesis is found in mitochondria? -- lactate dehydrogenase -- aldolase \+ pyruvate carboxylase -- glucose-6-phosphatase \# Enzymes of the oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway: -- transketolase \+ glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase -- malate dehydrogenase -- transaldolase \# Enzymes of the non-oxidative branch of the pentose phosphate pathway: \+ transketolase -- glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase -- glucose-6-phosphatase -- 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase \# Biological role of the pentose phosphate pathway: \+ NADPH~2~ production -- energy -- NADH~2~ production -- operating time of FADH~2~ \# Glycogen breakdown catalyzes: -- Phosphatase -- transketolase \+ phosphorylase -- aldolase \# Type I glycogenosis is caused by the lack of activity: -- hexokinases -- phosphorylases \+ glucose-6-phosphatase -- glycogen synthase \# What effects are inherent in glucagon? \+ activates gluconeogenesis -- activates glycolysis -- activates the pentose phosphate pathway -- reduces glucose transport into cells \# Specific enzymes of gluconeogenesis: \+ glucose-6-phosphatase -- phosphofructokinase -- fructose-1,6-diphosphate aldolase -- glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase \# The following take part in the formation of glucose-6-phosphate: -- aldolase \+ hexokinase -- glucose-6-phosphatase -- phosphorylase \# The conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate is catalyzed by: -- pyruvate carboxylase -- pyruvate dehydrogenase \+ pyruvate kinase -- phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase \# What product is formed during the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate? \+ acetyl-CoA -- citrate -- lactate -- alpha-ketoglutarate \# Coenzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase: -- thiamine diphosphate -- FAD \+ NADP -- NAD+ \# Enzymes specific for gluconeogenesis: -- hexokinase -- phosphofructokinase \+ fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase -- phosphorylase \# What bonds does the enzyme amylase hydrolyze? \+ alpha-1,4-glycosidic -- alpha-1,2-glycosidic -- alpha-1,6-glycosidic -- beta-1,4-glycosidic \# Gluconeogenesis is: -- synthesis of glycogen from glucose -- conversion of glycogen into glucose -- conversion of glucose to lactate \+ synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors \# GLUT-1 is the main transporter of glucose into cells: \+ brain -- liver -- muscles -- hearts \# GLUT-4 is the main transporter of glucose into cells: -- brain -- liver \+ muscles -- connective tissue \# One of the key-enzyme of glycolysis: \+ phosphofructokinase -- hexokinase -- aldolase -- lactate dehydrogenase \# The participation of the liver in the Corey's cycle is due to the following occurring in it: -- glycolysis \+ gluconeogenesis -- lipolysis -- glycogenolysis \# The conversion of pyruvate to oxaloacetic acid is catalyzed by: -- pyruvate dehydrogenase complex -- pyruvate kinase \+ pyruvate carboxylase -- phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase \# Product of reaction catalyzed by phosphorylase: \+ glucose-1-phosphate -- glucose -- glucose-6-phosphate -- UDP-glucose \# What enzyme is used in the enzymatic determination of glucose? -- pyruvate kinase \+ glucose oxidase -- glucokinase -- lactate dehydrogenase \# Normal blood glucose levels: -- 1.5 -- 2.5 mmol/l -- 4.0 -- 8.0 mmol/l \+ 3.6 -- 6.1 mmol/l -- 7.5 -- 12.5 mmol/l \# Reserve lipids include: -- glycerophospholipids -- cholesterol \+ triglycerides -- sphingophospholipids \# Protoplasmic lipids include: \+ glycerophospholipids -- waxes -- triglycerides -- terpenoids \# The digestion of triglycerides in the gastrointestinal tract involves: -- triglyceride lipase -- lipoprotein lipase \+ pancreatic lipase -- phospholipase \# Acetyl-CoA carboxylase catalyzes the formation of: \+ malonyl-CoA -- acetoacetate -- mevalonic acid -- acetoacetyl-CoA \# In a reaction catalyzed by acetyl-CoA carboxylase: \+ biotin is a coenzyme -- acetoacetyl-CoA is formed -- the coenzyme is NAD -- CO~2~ is formed \# Intermediate products in the synthesis of triglycerides: \+ phosphatidic acid -- beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-CoA -- glyceraldehyde phosphate -- acetoacetyl-CoA \# Chylomicrons are a transport form: -- cholesterol to cells -- cholesterol from cells \+ exogenous triglycerides -- endogenous triglycerides \# VLDL are the transport form of: -- cholesterol to cells -- cholesterol from cells -- endogenous triglycerides \+ exogenous triglycerides \# LDL is a transport form: \+ cholesterol to cells -- endogenous triglycerides -- exogenous triglycerides -- cholesterol from cells \# HDL are a transport form of: -- exogenous triglycerides \+ cholesterol from cells -- endogenous triglycerides -- cholesterol to cells \# The transport of free fatty acids through the blood involves: -- chylomicrons -- HDL \+ albumins -- carnitine \# Lipoprotein lipase breaks down in chylomicron: -- phospholipids -- fatty acid -- cholesterol esters \+ triglycerides \# The following is tekes part in the breakdown of TAG in VLDL: \+ lipoprotein lipase -- phospholipase -- pancreatic lipase -- triglyceride lipase \# When VLDL is broken down, the following are formed: -- chylomicrons \+ LDL -- HDL -- micelles \# Hormone-sensitive triglyceride lipase is involved in: \+ in tissue lipolysis -- in the digestion of triacylglycerols -- in the breakdown of triacylglycerols of lipoproteins -- in the synthesis of triacylglycerols \# Where in the cell does beta-oxidation of fatty acids occur? -- in microsomes -- in the cytoplasm \+ in mitochondria -- in the core \# Transport of fatty acids into the mitochondrion is carried out by: \+ carnitine -- carnosine -- keratin -- creatine \# Which of them is ketone body: -- beta-alanine -- beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-CoA -- triacylglycerols \+ beta-hydroxybutyrate \# Cholesterol is a precursor to: \+ steroid hormones -- fatty acids -- vitamin E -- vitamin A \# Antiatherogenic lipoproteins: -- chylomicrons -- VLDL \+ HDL -- LDL \# The main reasons for the development of atherosclerosis: \+ hypercholesterolemia -- increase in ketone bodies in the blood -- steatorrhea -- increased secretion of HCl in the stomach \# Steatorrhea is: -- formation of gallstones -- accumulation of stearic acid in urine -- increased concentration of lipoproteins in the blood \+ excess triglycerides in stool \# The role of carnitine in the body: -- transport of fatty acids in the blood -- energy depot in muscles \+ transport of fatty acids into the mitochondria -- is provitamin A \# Phosphatidic acid is: -- polyunsaturated fatty acid -- intermediate product in cholesterol synthesis \+ intermediate in triglyceride synthesis -- representative of phospholipids \# The cause of type II hyperlipoproteinemia is: \+ absence of cellular receptors for LDL -- lipoprotein lipase defect -- phospholipase defect -- triglyceride lipase defect \# With type IV hyperlipoproteinemia, the blood content increases: -- chylomicrons -- LDL \+ VLDL -- HDL \# For the treatment of cholelithiasis the following is used: \+ chenodeoxycholic acid -- linoleic acid -- linolenic acid -- deoxycholic acid \# The cause of type I hyperlipoproteinemia is: -- phospholipase defect \+ lipoprotein lipase defect -- triglyceride lipase defect -- absence of cellular receptors for LDL \# Primary bile acids is: -- phenodeoxycholic \+ cholic -- deoxycholic -- lithocholic \# Primary bile acids are conjugated in the liver with: \+ glycine -- glycerin -- glucuronic acid -- sulfuric acid \# Place of formation of chylomicrons in the body: -- endothelium \+ enterocytes -- adipose tissue -- red blood cells \# Place of formation of VLDL in the body: -- adipose tissue -- muscles \+ hepatocytes -- red blood cells \# Place of formation of LDL in the body: \+ blood plasma -- red blood cells -- adipose tissue -- connective tissue \# Intermediate products formed during the synthesis of glycerophospholipids: -- ceramide -- UDP-galactose \+ CDP-choline -- UDP-choline \# An enzyme that regulates the rate of cholesterol synthesis in the cell: -- beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-CoA lyase -- beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase \+ beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase -- acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase \# The transport of cholesterol in blood serum involves: -- HDL -- micelles -- carnitine \+ LDL \# An enzyme involved in the digestion of proteins in the gastrointestinal tract: -- amylase -- gastrin \+ aminopeptidase -- alanine aminotransferase \# Biogenic amine with vasoconstrictor effect: \+ serotonin -- dopamine -- histamine -- GABA \# Which enzyme deficiency leads to the development of citrullinuria? -- carbamoylphosphate synthetase -- isocitrate dehydrogenase \+ argininosuccitate synthetase -- ornithine carbamoyltransferase \# Which is the main type of amino acid deamination in the human body? \+ oxidative -- restorative -- hydrolytic -- intramolecular \# An amino acid that undergoes direct oxidative deamination in the human body: -- aspartic -- glutamine -- methionine \+ glutamate \# Which amino acid is not involved in the urea synthesis cycle? \+ asparagine -- ornithine -- aspartic acid -- arginine \# Cofactor of amino acid decarboxylases: -- FAD -- thiamine diphosphate \+ pyridoxal phosphate -- FMN \# Which vitamin derivative is a coenzyme of amino acid decarboxylases? -- thiamine -- biotin \+ pyridoxine -- riboflavin \# Biological role of amino acid decarboxylation in the human body: -- synthesis of essential amino acids -- energy production \+ biosynthesis of biogenic amines -- formation of NADPH~2~ \# Irreversible reactions of amino acid metabolism: -- transamination \+ decarboxylation -- deamination -- carboxylation \# The ornithine cycle is: \+ the main way of neutralizing ammonia in the body -- pathway of uric acid formation -- pathway for transport of amino acids across the membrane -- pathway for ATP formation \# First reaction of urea synthesis: -- citrate formation -- formation of ornithine \+ formation of carbamoyl phosphate -- deamination of glutamate \# In phenylketonuria, which transformation is disrupted: -- tyrosine to phenylalanine \+ phenylalanine to tyrosine -- phenylalanine to tryptophan -- tryptophan to phenylalanine \# The reason for the development of albinism is: \+ tyrosinase deficiency -- decrease in the concentration of albumin in the blood -- deficiency of vitamin A in the body -- phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency \# The cause of type I hyperammonemia is a deficiency of: -- arginase -- alanine aminotransferase -- ornithine carbamoyltransferase \+ carbamoylphosphate synthetase \# Ways of ammonia formation in the body: -- formation of biogenic amines \+ deamination of amino acids -- transamination -- reductive amination \# In which metabolic pathway does urea synthesis occur? -- reductive amination -- breakdown of purine nitrogenous bases -- decomposition of pyrimidine nitrogenous bases \+ ornithine cycle \# In the brain, ammonia is neutralized by: \+ formation of asparagine and glutamine -- urea synthesis -- formation of ammonium salts -- formation of uric acid \# Inosinic acid is an intermediate product of the synthesis: -- Urea \+ GMF -- UMF -- glucuronic acid \# What amino acids are involved in the synthesis of creatine? -- lysine -- tyrosine \+ arginine -- alanine \# With homogentisate oxidase deficiency, the disease develops: \+ alkaptonuria -- tyrosinosis -- Gierke\'s disease -- hemophilia \# A substance that is a universal donor of methyl groups: -- isoleucine -- serine \+ S-adenosylmethionine -- choline \# What keto acid is formed in the reaction catalyzed by AST? \+ oxaloacetate -- alpha-ketoglutaric acid -- acetoacetate -- pyruvate \# Enzymes involved in the digestion of proteins in the stomach: \+ pepsin -- trypsin -- collagenase -- gastrin \# Enzyme that catalyze transamination processes -- glycinamidinotransferase \+ alanine aminotransferase -- gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase -- glutamate dehydrogenase \# Biological role of transamination reactions: -- ammonia formation -- formation of biogenic amines -- synthesis of essential amino acids \+ synthesis of non-essential amino acids \# In which tissue is the greatest ALT activity observed? -- kidneys \+ liver \- intestines \- heart \# In which tissue is the greatest AST activity observed? -- kidneys -- intestines \+ heart -- liver \# Determination of ALT activity is used for diagnosis: -- acute pancreatitis -- diabetes mellitus -- myocardial infarction \+ hepatitis \# What reaction does AlAT catalyze? \+ transfer of amino group from alanine to alpha-ketoglutarate -- transfer of the amino group from alanine to glutamate -- transfer of the amino group from alanine to pyruvate -- transfer of the amino group from alanine to acetoacetate \# ALT activity in blood serum is normal: -- 0.10 -- 0.45 mmol/l\*h \+ 0.10 -- 0.68 mmol/l\*h -- 0.25 -- 0.90 mmol/l\*h -- 0.50 -- 1.20 mmol/l\*h \# AST activity in blood serum is normal: -- 0.10 -- 0.68 mmol/l\*h -- 0.75 -- 1.30 mmol/l\*h -- 0.60 -- 1.50 mmol/l\*h \+ 0.10 -- 0.45 mmol/l\*h \# A decrease in the amount of urea in the blood is observed when: -- a diet rich in protein -- protein breakdown in tissues \+ liver cirrhosis -- kidney diseases \# Increased urea content in the blood is observed when: \+ kidney diseases -- increased breakdown of proteins -- lack of protein in food -- liver diseases \# Determination of AST activity is used for diagnosis: -- acute pancreatitis -- diabetes mellitus -- prostate cancer \+ myocardial infarction \# Biological significance of the intrinsic factor of Castle: \+ ensures the absorption of vitamin B12 -- participates in iron absorption -- removes cholesterol from the body -- increases the secretion of HCl in the stomach \# How many molecules of ATP are formed during the oxidation of 1 molecule of acetyl CoA in the Krebs cycle: -- 5 ATP -- 15 ATP -- 18 ATP \+ 12 ATP \# Phosphate compounds of monosaccharides during glycogenolysis, except: -- Glucose-1-phosphate \+ Ribose-6-phosphate -- Glucose-6-phosphate -- Fructose-1.6-diphosphate \# How many ATP molecules are formed during glycogenolysis: -- 1 \+ 3 -- 2 -- 4 \# Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) is: \+ Coenzyme dehydrogenase -- Biological oxidation enzyme -- Nucleotide part of the protein -- Coenzyme carboxylase \# Enzymes for the formation of active acetic acid from pyruvate, except: -- Dehydrogenase (NAD) -- HS-CoA \+ Dehydrogenase (TPF) -- Decarboxylase \# Metabolites which takes place in dehydrogenation TCA cycle, except: \+ Lactate -- Malate -- Isocitrate -- Succinate \# Proteolytic enzymes of intestinal juice, except: -- Aminopeptidases \+ Pepsinogen -- Enteropeptidase -- Dipeptidase \# The patient complains of pain in the abdominal area of uncertain localization, especially worse after eating, frequent and loose stools, weight loss. What examination result is most expected in this patient? -- increased biliverdin in feces \+ presence of fats in feces -- increased creatine kinase activity -- presence of stercobilin in feces \# The patient is suspected of having a pancreatic disease. What test is most appropriate to confirm this condition? -- determination of biliverdin in feces -- determination of lactate in blood \+ determination of fats in feces -- determination of stercobilin in feces \# Which enzyme increases in the blood during pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)? -- creatine kinase \+ amylase -- phosphatase -- aldolase \# Which enzyme increases in the blood when the heart is damaged? -- amylase -- acid phosphatase \+ aspartate aminotransferase -- alkaline phosphatase \# Which enzymes predominantly increase in the blood during hepatitis (liver inflammation)? \+ alanine aminotransferase -- serum amylase -- acid phosphatase -- serum aldolase \# Triglycerides consist of -- Glycerol and aldehyde -- Glycerin and phosphoric acid \+ Glycerol and fatty acids -- Choline and glycerin \# Name the final metabolite that is formed during the oxidation of fatty acids with an even number of C atoms -- Crotonic acid -- Propionic acid \+ Acetic acid -- Butyric acid \# Chymotrypsinogen activation factors \+ Trypsin -- Elastin -- Renin -- Chymosin \# Mechanism of decarboxylation -- Destruction of hydrocarbon radical -- Carbon monoxide release \+ Destruction of the carboxyl group -- Ammonia formation \# Glycogenolysis -- Intrinsic synthesis of glucose from intermediate metabolic products -- Intrinsic glycogen synthesis \+ Oxidation of glycogen to lactic acid under conditions of anaerobiosis -- Glucose oxidation \#Which dicarboxylic acid is formed during the carboxylation of propionic acid \+ Succinate -- Oxalacetate -- Malate -- Fumarate \# Pepsinogen activating factor -- pH change due to sodium bicarbonate -- pH change due to potassium bicarbonate \+ Change in pH under the influence of hydrochloric acid -- Change in pH under the influence of phosphoric acid salts \# Which vitamin is involved in redox processes? -- folacin \+ riboflavin -- biotin -- thiamine \# In tissues, the aerobic breakdown of glucose is impaired, the TCA cycle is inhibited. What vitamin is involved in these reactions? \- vitamin A -- vitamin D~3~ \+ vitamin B~1~ -- vitamin B~C~ \# A child with increased excitability experiences convulsions, bloating and anemia. The glutamate decarboxylation reaction is disrupted. Which coenzyme is not synthesized? -- flavin mononucleotide -- nicotinamide dinucleotide \+ pyridoxal phosphate -- thiamine diphosphate \# In what order do the stages of metabolism occur? -- Digestion, excretion, absorption, intermediate metabolism -- Excretion, digestion, absorption, intermediate metabolism \+ Digestion, absorption, intermediate metabolism, excretion -- Absorption, digestion, intermediate metabolism, excretion \# What reactions are related to substrate phosphorylation reactions? -- phosphofructokinase; -- lactate dehydrogenase; -- hexokinase. \+ pyruvate kinase; \# What is the most important function of carbohydrates? -- Antigenic \+ Energy -- Catalytic -- Transport \# What class do enzymes involved in the digestion of carbohydrates belong to? -- Oxidoreductases -- Transferases \+ Hydrolases -- Liases \# What substances are formed as a result of the digestion of carbohydrates in the small intestine? -- Fatty acids -- Peptides \+ Monosaccharides -- Ketone bodies \# How can carbohydrates be distributed according to the rate of absorption in the intestine? \+ Galactose \> glucose \> fructose \> pentose -- Pentose \> galactose \> glucose \> fructose -- Fructose \> pentose \> galactose \> glucose -- Galactose \> pentose \> fructose \> glucose \# Which of the following absorption routes is typical for galactose? \+ Secondary active transport -- Simple diffusion -- Facilitated diffusion -- Primary active transport \# Which of the following absorption routes is typical for fructose? -- Simple diffusion \+ Facilitated diffusion -- Secondary active transport -- Primary active transport \# What is glycogenolysis? -- breakdown of galactose -- glucose synthesis -- glycogen synthesis \+ breakdown of glycogen \# What is the product of phosphorolysis in the liver? -- Glycerin -- Mannose -- Fructose-6-phosphate \+ Glucose-1-phosphate \# Which enzyme is involved in the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver? -- Alpha amylase -- Lactase \+ Gamma amylase -- Sucrase \# What important function does the Corey's cycle perform? -- promotes the formation of glucose from glycogen -- ensures the formation of amino acids from glucose -- promotes the formation of fats from glucose \+ promotes the formation of glucose from lactate \# What is the name of the process of formation of glucose from intermediate metabolic products? -- Glycogenogenesis \+ Gluconeogenesis -- Liponeogenesis -- Glycogenolysis \# At the height of digestion, the blood glucose level reached 8.2 mmol/l. What process is enhanced in the liver? \+ Glycogenogenesis -- Gluconeogenesis -- Glycogenolysis -- Hydrolysis \# What is the glucostatic function of the liver? -- in maintaining normal levels of amino acids in the blood -- in protein synthesis \+ in maintaining normal blood glucose levels -- in the formation of glycoproteins \# With prolonged fasting, blood glucose levels decrease. What process is enhanced in the liver? \+ Gluconeogenesis -- Hydrolysis -- Glycogenogenesis -- Lipolysis \# After heavy muscular work, muscle pain may appear. Acidosis is observed in the blood. The level of which substance in the blood has increased? -- Galactose \+ Lactate -- Glucose -- Glycogen \# How many NADPH~2~ molecules are formed during the oxidation of 6 glucose molecules by the pentose phosphate pathway: -- 4 NADPH~2~ molecules -- 7 NADPH~2~ molecules \+ 12 NADPH~2~ molecules -- 10 NADPH~2~ molecules \# Which of the following enzymes is involved in the oxidation of glucose by the pentose phosphate pathway if the reaction results in the formation of NADPH~2~? -- transketolase; -- epimerase; \+ glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase; -- pyruvate dehydrogenase. \# What will happen if the blood glucose concentration exceeds 15 mmol/l? \+ hyperglycemia; -- hypoglycemia; -- hyperuricemia; -- glucorachia; \# What is the name of the condition when the blood glucose concentration is 3.2 mmol/l? -- hyperuricemia; -- glucorachia; -- hyperglycemia; \+ hypoglycemia; \# What is the name of the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of ATP formation in the process of glycolysis (PEP + ADP → Pyruvate + ATP) (PEP - phosphoenolpyruvate)? \+ Pyruvate kinase -- Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase -- Pyruvate decarboxylase -- Pyruvate ligase \# What happens when 2-phosphoglycerate is converted to phosphoenolpyruvate? -- ATP is synthesized \+ high-energy substrate is formed -- water is added -- isomerization \# What is the source for the formation of ATP during glycolysis as a result of the substrate phosphorylation reaction? -- phosphoglyceraldehyde -- glucose-6-phosphate \+ 1,3-diphosphoglycerate -- fructose-6-phosphate \# During glycolysis, 2 molecules of NADH are formed in the cytoplasm - How can these compounds be used under anaerobic conditions? -- transported to mitochondria to produce energy \+ to reduce pyruvate to lactate -- oxidized in the cytoplasm -- for the oxidation of pyruvate \# During glycolysis, 2 molecules of NADH are formed in the cytoplasm - How can these compounds be used under aerobic conditions? \+ oxidized using shuttle mechanisms -- transported to mitochondria to produce glucose -- to reduce pyruvate to lactate -- oxidized in the cytoplasm \# What happens to pyruvate under anaerobic conditions? -- oxidized to lactate \+ reduced to lactate -- turns into glucose -- undergoes oxidative decarboxylation \# What happens to pyruvate under aerobic conditions? -- oxidized to lactate -- turns into glucose -- reduced to lactate \+ undergoes oxidative decarboxylation \# What process undergoes pyruvate formed during the oxidation of glucose under aerobic conditions? -- excreted from the body -- enters mitochondria and is reduced to lactate \+ enters mitochondria and is converted to acetyl-CoA -- turns into ethyl alcohol \# After drinking milk, an infant experiences flatulence, diarrhea, and intestinal pain. Which of the following enzymes is produced in insufficient quantities in this child? -- Sucrase -- Maltase -- Glucomutase \+ Lactase \# Anaerobic conditions have been created in the cell. What result of biochemical transformations is most expected? -- Succinate. \+ Lactate -- Malat -- Fumarate \# Aerobic conditions have been created in the cell. What result of biochemical transformations is most expected? \+ AcetylCoA -- Lactate -- Malonate -- Glutarate \# The patient is overweight. What carbohydrates should you limit in your diet? -- Pectin \+ Starch -- Cellulose -- Lignin \# The patient has constipation. What carbohydrate is recommended to use to improve intestinal function? \+ Cellulose -- Lactose -- Sucrose -- Fructose \# The patient experiences loss of consciousness due to fasting. What nutritional substance needs to be given urgently? \+ Glucose -- Albumin -- Erythropoietin -- Vitamin D \# The patient has impaired conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. What vitamins should be prescribed to improve this process? -- vitamin B~12~ -- vitamin H \+ vitamin B~1~ -- vitamin K \# The patient has increased blood clotting. What heteropolysaccharide can be prescribed to normalize this process? \+ Heparin -- Hyaluronic acid -- Keratin sulfate -- Chondroitin-4-sulfate \# Which process is the only source of glucose in the blood during prolonged fasting? -- Glycogenolysis -- Lipolysis -- Lipogenesis \+ Gluconeogenesis \# What substances are phospholipids? \+ Lecithin -- Diacylglycerol -- Triacylglycerol -- Cholesterol \# The process of lipid metabolism occurring in the intestinal lumen? -- Liponeogenesis -- Micelle disintegration \+ Emulsification of fats -- Synthesis of chylomicrons \# Where are micelles formed? \+ in the intestinal lumen -- in the intestinal wall -- in hepatocytes -- in the stomach \# Which organ is involved in the oxidation of cholesterol into bile acids? -- Kidneys -- Brain \+ Liver -- Lungs \# What substance in the liver is a precursor of bile acids? -- Acetoacetate \+ Cholesterol -- Lecithin -- Prostaglandin \# What processes take place in the intestinal wall? \+ Formation of chylomicrons -- Synthesis of micelles -- Disintegration of chylomicrons -- Creatine synthesis \# Lipid metabolic processes that occur predominantly in the liver? \+ Ketogenesis -- Lipogenesis -- Lipolysis -- Transamination \# What enzyme carries out intravascular lipolysis of chylomicrons? \+ Lipoprotein lipase -- Liver lipase -- Pancreatic lipase -- Lingual lipase \# Which transport form of lipids is atherogenic (LDL - low-density lipoproteins; VLDL -- very low-density lipoproteins; HDL - high-density lipoproteins)? -- Chylomicrons -- HDL \+ LDL -- VLDL \# Which transport form of lipids is antiatherogenic (LDL - low-density lipoproteins; VLDL - very low-density lipoproteins; HDL - high-density lipoproteins)? \+ HDL -- LDL -- VLDL -- Chylomicron \# What is the percentage of cholesterol in low-density lipoproteins? -- 20% -- 30% -- 80% \+ 50% \# What is the biological role of serum alpha-lipoproteins? -- promote the penetration of cholesterol into tissues -- transport cholesterol from the liver to tissues -- transport chylomicrons from tissues to the liver \+ transport cholesterol from tissues to the liver \# What is the biological role of pre-betta-lipoproteins? \+ transport endogenous triglycerides from the liver to adipose tissue -- transport chylomicrons from tissues to the liver -- promotes the formation of cholesterol in the liver -- transport cholesterol from tissues to the liver \# What is the biological role of betta-lipoproteins? -- transport cholesterol from tissues to the liver -- promote the penetration of cholesterol into tissues \+ transport cholesterol from the liver to tissues -- transport chylomicrons from tissues to the liver \# What is the lipotropic effect of phospholipids? -- In accelerating the process of lipolysis -- In accelerating the process of liponeogenesis \+ In protecting the liver from obesity -- Involved in the excretion of lipids in feces \# What is the importance of cholesterol for the body? -- participates in the emulsification of fats -- is a source of endogenous water \+ is a precursor to steroid hormones -- is a source of energy for the body \# What is the most important function of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)? -- are precursors of steroid hormones -- increase protein solubility -- participate in protein transport \+ increase cholesterol solubility \# In the small intestine, fats are prepared for digestion - emulsification. What compounds are fat emulsifiers in the human body? \+ Bile acids -- Monoacylglycerides -- Triacylglycerides -- Amino acids \# What enzymes are involved in the digestion of lipids in the gastrointestinal tract? -- Exopeptidases \+ Esterase -- Endopeptidases -- Decarboxylase \# What substances are activators of pancreatic juice lipase? -- Fatty acid, taurine -- Amino acids, magnesium ions -- Chlorine ions, cholecystokinin \+ Colipases, bile acids \# Which substance is most necessary for the normal digestion of dietary fats and the absorption of the products of their hydrolysis in the lumen of the small intestine? -- Chloride anion \+ Bile acid -- Lipoprotein lipase -- Gastric lipase \# Micelles ensure the absorption of lipid hydrolysis products. What substances are necessary for the formation of a micelle? \+ Bile salt -- Diacylglycerol -- Polyene fatty acid -- Protein \# What can cause lipid malabsorption? -- vitamin deficiency of water-soluble vitamins \+ insufficient flow of bile into the intestines -- insufficiency of gastric juice -- hypervitaminosis of fat-soluble vitamins \# Reaction of triacylglycerol synthesis from monoglyceride pathway: -- alpha-monoglyceride + acyl-CoA → diacylglyceride → triglyceride -- diglyceride + fatty acid → beta-monoglyceride → triglyceride \+ beta-monoglyceride + acyl-CoA → diglyceride → triglyceride -- phosphatidic acid + acyl-CoA → diglyceride → triglyceride \# In enterocytes, dietary fat products are included in lipid resynthesis reactions. Which transport form contains resynthesized triglycerides (LDL - low-density lipoproteins; VLDL - very low-density lipoproteins; HDL - high-density lipoproteins)? \+ Chylomicron -- VLDL -- LDL -- HDL \# After eating fatty foods, the blood serum becomes cloudy, but soon returns to its original state. What enzyme causes "clearing" of blood serum? -- Intestinal lipase -- Cholesterol esterase \+ Lipoprotein lipase -- Phospholipase \# What role do chylomicrons play? -- deposit endogenous lipids in intestinal cells -- transport cholesterol esters from the liver to tissues \+ transport exogenous lipids from intestinal cells to the liver -- remove excess cholesterol from cells \# During examination of the patient, xanthomas were found on the skin. The plasma is opaque and resembles milk. What biochemical indicator is determined to confirm hyperchylomicronemia? \+ concentration of triglycerides in the blood -- blood cholesterol concentration -- concentration of fatty acids in the blood -- concentration of alpha lipoprotein in the blood \# Little amount of blood was taken after eating a fatty meal. The plasma is turbid; a biochemical blood test showed an increase in the level of total lipids. When repeating a blood test after 6 hours: the plasma is clear, the lipid content is normal. What condition can be assumed? -- Heart failure -- Cholelithiasis -- Fasting \+ Nutritional lipidemia \# In acute pancreatitis, as well as as a result of trauma to the pancreas, the rate of digestion of nutrients decreases. What violation is most expected in this case? -- the appearance of undigested amino acids in feces \+ appearance of undigested triglycerides in feces -- the appearance of unsplit disaccharides in the urine -- appearance of undigested monosaccharides in feces \# To diagnose atherosclerosis, the patient's blood levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol were determined. What additional blood test should be performed on the patient to confirm the diagnosis? \+ determine the LDL/HDL ratio -- determine the cholesterol/triglyceride ratio -- determine the pyruvate/lactate ratio -- determine the tyrosine/valine ratio \# In patients with a genetic defect of Apoprotein B-100, the level of low-density lipoproteins in the blood is significantly increased. What condition is this blood picture typical for? -- Obesity -- Cholelithiasis \+ Atherosclerosis -- Obstructive jaundice \# Which amino acid is the source of the methyl groups necessary for the conversion of colamine to choline? -- Arginine -- Glycine \+ Methionine -- Cysteine \# What low-molecular nitrogen compound prevents fatty infiltration of the liver? \+ Choline -- Melatonin -- Glycine -- Creatine \# Which organ plays the most important role in the synthesis of triglycerides through phosphatidic acid? \+ Liver -- Kidneys -- Heart -- Brain \# Which organ plays the most important role in the synthesis of phospholipids through phosphatidic acid? \+ Liver -- Intestines -- Kidneys -- Heart \# Phosphatidic acid can serve as a precursor to a number of substances. What substances are formed from phosphatidic acid? -- vitamin D \+ triacylglycerol -- fatty acid -- cholesterol \# Which nucleoside triphosphate is used in phospholipid synthesis reactions? -- GTF \+ CTF -- UTF -- TTF \# How are saturated fatty acids with an even number of carbon atoms oxidized? -- alpha oxidation -- omega oxidation \+ beta oxidation -- oxidative decarboxylation \# In which organelle takes place of free fatty acid oxidation? -- Nucleus -- Ribosome -- Peroxisome \+ Mitochondria \# Which organ primarily uses the energy of free fatty acids? -- Liver -- Kidneys \+ Muscles -- Stomach \# How much NADH~2~ and FADH~2~ are produced during one cycle of beta-oxidation of free fatty acids? -- 2 \+ 1 -- 3 -- 4 \# What amount of active acetic acid is formed during the oxidation of palmitic acid? -- 6 -- 9 \+ 8 -- 10 \# How much reduced NADH~2~ is formed during the oxidation of palmitic acid? -- 9 -- 10 \+ 7 -- 12 \# What substances transport free fatty acids through the bloodstream? \+ Albumin -- alpha globulins -- beta globulins -- gamma globulins \# What substance transports active fatty acid (acyl-CoA) from the cytoplasm to mitochondria? -- Lecithin -- Glutamine \+ Carnitine -- Malat \# What substance is a substrate for lipid peroxidation? \+ arachidonic acid -- palmitic acid -- stearic acid -- acetic acid \# Which substance is one of the end products of lipid peroxidation? -- lipoperoxide radical \+ malondialdehyde -- arachidonic acid -- diene conjugates \# Which vitamins have antioxidant effects? \+ Vitamin E -- Vitamin P -- Vitamin K -- Vitamin PP \# What disorders in lipid metabolism are observed when there is insufficient supply of bile to the intestines? -- hypervitaminosis of fat-soluble vitamins -- deficiency of essential amino acids \+ impaired digestion and absorption of lipids in the intestine -- bile is oversaturated with phospholipids \# Under what situation is phosphatidic acid used for the synthesis of phospholipids? -- presence of phosphoric acid -- lack of glucose \+ presence of nitrogen-containing substances -- no ethanol \# Under what situation is phosphatidic acid used for the synthesis of triglycerides? \+ absence of nitrogen-containing substances -- presence of lipotropic substances -- presence of nitrogen-containing substances -- lack of glucose \# Patients with fatty liver degeneration and hypertriglyceridemia are recommended to adding their diet choline and methionine. What is the mechanism of choline use? -- Used for cholesterol synthesis \+ Used for lecithin synthesis -- Goes to the synthesis of polyene fatty acids -- Accelerates lipolysis \# Which process, enhanced by fasting, involves the use of phosphoglyceraldehyde? \+ Gluconeogenesis -- Lipogenesis -- Glycogenogenesis -- Glycogenolysis \# What role does carnitine play in the oxidation of free fatty acids? -- transport of active acetic acid from mitochondria to the cytoplasm -- transport of free fatty acids from the mitochondria to cytoplasm \+ transport of active fatty acid from the cytoplasm to mitochondria -- transport of active acetic acid from the cytoplasm to mitochondria \# Which enzyme catalyzes the oxidation of acyl-CoA to dehydroacyl-CoA during beta-oxidation of free fatty acids (flavoprotein - FP)? \+ FP with coenzyme FAD -- Enoyl-CoA hydratase -- Acyltransferase -- Carnitine acyltransphrase \# What can cause steatorrhea? \+ lack of bile in the intestines -- lack of bile pigments; -- increase in bilirubin; -- pepsin inhibition; \# A person who does not consume fat for a long time, but receives a sufficient amount of carbohydrates and proteins, has dermatitis, poor wound healing, blurred vision, and decreased sexual function. When a therapeutic diet containing fish oil was prescribed, the symptoms of the disease disappeared. What substance deficiency causes such manifestations? -- Lack of oleic acid -- Insufficient intake of vitamins D -- Low calorie diet \+ Lack of linoleic acid \# The patient has fatty liver degeneration and hypercholesterolemia. What diet should be recommended for patients in this situation? \+ Including products with methionine -- Including products containing lactose -- Including foods containing saturated fatty acids -- Including products containing sucrose \# A laboratory examination of the patient\'s blood serum revealed an increase in intermediate and final products of lipid peroxidation (saturated hydrocarbons, malondialdehyde, acid hydroperoxide, diene conjugates). Which vitamin is most applicable in treatment to normalize this process? -- Riboflavin \+ Tocopherol -- Folacin -- Pyridoxine \# During a laboratory study of the patient, an increase in intermediate and final products of lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde, acid hydroperoxide, diene conjugates) was detected in the patient's blood serum. Which of the following products is most beneficial for this patient? -- Animal fats -- Legumes \+ Citrus -- Cereals \# An overweight girl, in order to lose weight, limits fat in her diet and engages in moderate physical activity. What recommendations can a doctor give for weight loss? \+ Limit carbohydrate intake -- Reduce physical activity -- Increase carbohydrate intake -- Reduce protein intake \# What substance is the starting material for the synthesis of ketone bodies? -- malonyl-CoA -- hydroxymethyl-CoA \+ acetyl-CoA -- propionyl-CoA \# Which organ is capable of synthesizing ketone bodies? \+ Liver -- Lungs -- Intestines -- Adipose tissue \# What substance is the coenzyme of Hydroxymethylglutaryl reductase? \+ NADPH~2~ -- NADH~2~ -- FADH~2~ -- FMNH~2~ \# Which enzyme is regulatory in the biosynthesis of cholesterol? -- Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA synthase -- Cholesterol esterase \+ Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase -- Lipoprotein lipase \# Which organ is most actively involved in cholesterol biosynthesis? -- Skin \+ Liver -- Brain -- Adrenal gland \# What is liponeogenesis? -- Breakdown of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol -- Formation of carbohydrates from lipids \+ Formation of lipids from carbohydrates -- Formation of lipids from bile acids \# What substances can be deposited in adipose tissue? \+ Triacylglycerols -- Lipoproteins -- Monoglycerides -- Phospholipids \# Which compound inhibits hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl reductase? -- Aspartic acid \+ Chenodeoxycholic acid -- Malate -- Active acetic acid \# How many NADPH~2~ molecules are needed for the synthesis of palmitic acid? -- 8 -- 10 \+ 14 -- 12 \# What substance is the end product of lipid metabolism? -- Acetoacetyl-CoA -- Cholesterol \+ Acetyl-CoA -- Fatty acid \# What processes are sources of NADPH~2~ for the synthesis of free fatty acids and cholesterol? \+ pentose phosphate cycle -- glycolytic pathway -- anaerobic glycolysis -- Krebs cycle \# Acetyl-CoA is used in the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol. What other substance is needed for these processes? -- FMNH~2~ -- FADH~2~ -- KoQH~2~ \+ NADPH~2~ \# What substance does the brain use as an energy source during prolonged fasting: \+ Acetoacetate -- Acetone -- Cholesterol -- Creatin \# What phenomenon develops when ketone bodies accumulate in the blood? \+ Acidosis -- Uremia -- Alkalosis -- Hyperuricemia \# A patient who was prescribed a low-calorie diet for two weeks for therapeutic purposes lost significant weight. Which hormone regulates the rate of fat mobilization when diet changes? \+ Glucagon -- Insulin -- Calcitonin -- Oxytocin \# Which process corresponds to the following sequence: 2 Acetyl-CoA → hydroxymethyl glutaryl → acetoacetate -- Biosynthesis of fatty acids \+ Biosynthesis of ketone bodies -- Palmitate biosynthesis -- Biosynthesis of arachidonic acid \# What is the significance of ketone bodies? \+ are a source of energy -- are a product of beta oxidation -- are a source of bile acids -- are a substrate for gluconeogenesis \# What is the danger of hyperketonemia? -- activates lysosome enzymes -- promotes the development of dehydration \+ promotes the development of acidosis -- activates lipogenesis enzymes \# What disease is characterized by an increase in ketone bodies in the blood and urine? \+ Diabetes mellitus -- Atherosclerosis -- Obesity -- Cholelithiasis \# Which cholesterol synthesis reaction is key process? \+ formation of mevalonic acid -- formation of hydroxy-methylglutaryl-CoA -- formation of active isoprene -- formation of squalene \# Excessive consumption of carbohydrates increases the mass of adipose tissue. Part of the glucose that enters the body is converted into a more compact form of energy storage - fats (liponeogenesis). What product of glucose catabolism is used for the synthesis of fatty acids in the liver? -- Pyruvate -- Lactate -- Phosphoenolpyruvate \+ Acetyl-CoA \# What reasons can lead to an increase in ketone bodies in the blood? -- Binge eating -- Physical inactivity -- Ketonuria \+ Fasting \# Which fatty acid synthesis reaction is key process? \+ Formation of malonyl-CoA -- Formation of beta-hydroxybutyryl-ACP -- Formation of acetoacetyl-ACP -- Formation of butyryl-CoA \# Acetyl-CoA, which is formed during aerobic oxidation of glucose, is a substrate for the synthesis of fatty acids. What transformations does it undergo during the biosynthesis of free fatty acids (acyl transfer protein-ACP)? -- Formation of acetoacyl-CoA \+ Formation of malonyl-CoA -- Formation of butyryl-CoA -- Formation of acetylmalonyl-ACP \# To reduce the cholesterol level in the blood of a patient suffering from cholelithiasis, chenodeoxycholic acid was prescribed as a therapeutic drug. Which enzyme involved in cholesterol metabolism is inhibited by this drug? -- Hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl-CoA synthase \+ Hydroxy-methyl-glutaryl-reductase -- Cholesterol esterase -- Acyl-CoA cholesterol transferase \# The patient was found to have an increased level of ketone bodies in the blood. Under what physiological conditions of the body is ketonemia observed? -- no fat in food \+ long-term muscle work -- diabetes -- excess fat in food \# How is the most significant way of removing cholesterol from the body? \+ In the form of bile acids -- Through the kidneys with urine -- Through the intestines unchanged -- By oxidation to carbon dioxide \# What can be the cause of atherosclerosis? (VLDL - very low density lipoproteins; HDL - high density lipoproteins)? -- lack of essential amino acids \+ damage to the intima of blood vessels -- violation of the ratio of phospholipids: cholesterol: bile acids in bile -- violation of the VLDL/HDL ratio in the blood plasma \# The patient is overweight. What result is most expected from a biochemical blood test? -- Increased total protein levels \+ Elevated triglyceride levels -- Decreased lactate levels -- Reduced cholesterol levels \# The patient\'s blood showed an increase in low-density lipoproteins (LDL), very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), and the cholesterol level was 12 mmol/l. What disease is this blood picture typical for? -- Obesity -- cholelithiasis \+ Atherosclerosis -- Obstructive jaundice \# The girl lost consciousness due to prolonged fasting. What results of a biochemical blood test are most expected in this patient? \+ Increased levels of ketone bodies -- Reduced cholesterol levels -- Increased glucose levels -- Reduced glycogen content \# What is the main source of endogenous water? -- Cholesterol \+ Triacylglycerol -- Glycogen -- Protein \# What role does cholesterol play? -- Energy -- Transport \+ Structural -- Respiratory \# In which part of the gastrointestinal tract does the main digestion of lipids occur? \+ duodenum -- Oral cavity -- Stomach -- Colon \# Which lipid metabolism process occurs predominantly in the liver? -- Liponeogenesis -- Lipolysis -- Transamination \+ Bile formation \# What substance is an activator of lipoprotein lipase? \+ apoprotein C-II -- apoprotein B-48 -- apoprotein C-III -- apoprotein A-II \# What reaction does beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl reductase catalyze? -- dimethylallyl pyrophosphate → isopentyl pyrophosphate -- squalene → lanosterol \+ beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-CoA → mevalonic acid -- lanosterol → cholesterol \# What substance transports active acetic acid (acetyl-CoA) from mitochondria to the cytoplasm during the biosynthesis of saturated fatty acids? -- Malat \+ Citrate -- Glycerophosphate -- Glucose \# What sequence of reactions is typical during the synthesis of fatty acids in one cycle? \+ condensation, reduction, dehydration, reduction -- reduction, dehydration, reduction, condensation -- dehydration, condensation, reduction, reduction -- reduction, condensation, dehydration, reduction \# Reduced rate of digestion and absorption of fats leads to the appearance of undigested fats in feces. What is this phenomenon called? -- Cholestasis -- Hypocholesterolemia \+ Steatorrhea -- Dyslipoproteinemia \# In people whose diet is dominated by plant foods and fish, the risk of atherosclerosis is significantly reduced. What substances included in these products can have an antiatherogenic effect? -- Saturated fatty acids -- Unsaturated aldehydes -- Active fatty acids \+ Polyunsaturated fatty acids \# The number of ketone bodies in the blood has increased. What is this condition called? \+ Hyperketonemia -- Ketonuria -- Lipogenesis -- Liponeogenesis \# Which compound is a common intermediate metabolite in the biosynthesis of cholesterol and ketone bodies? \+ beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-CoA -- mevalonic acid -- beta-hydroxybutyric acid -- acetoacetyl-CoA \# Which substance is a precursor in the synthesis of mevalonic acid? -- Mevalonyl pyrophosphate \+ Beta-hydroxy-beta-methylglutaryl-CoA -- Acetoacetyl-CoA -- Isopentynyl pyrophosphate \# What disease can a decrease in the speed of the metabolic pathway lead to: "Cholesterol → 7-alpha-hydroxycholesterol\...→... → Chenodeoxycholic acid? \+ Gallstone disease -- Atherosclerosis -- Diabetes -- Obesity \# Which of the following substances contains the maximum amount of triacylglycerols? -- LDL \+ Chylomicrons -- HDL -- BOB \# What is the biological role of phospholipids? \+ have a lipotropic effect -- participate in the transport of fatty acids -- participate in the transport of amino acids -- participate in red blood cell aggregation \# Which fatty acids are not synthesized in the body and must be supplied with food? \+ linoleic acid -- palmitic acid -- oleic acid -- stearic acid \# What substance is formed during the lipolysis of triacylglycerols under the action of pancreatic lipase? \+ monoglyceride -- Acetyl-CoA -- Cholesterol -- Glycerin \# How are monoglycerides and long-carbon chain fatty acids absorbed in the intestine? -- Free suction -- In the form of CDP derivatives \+ Contains micelles -- Composed of chylomicrons. \# What reaction does lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase accelerate? -- cephalin + cholesterol → cholesteride + lysocephalin -- lecithin + diglyceride → triglyceride + lysolecithin -- phosphatidylserine + cholesterol → phosphatide + cholesterol \+ lecithin + cholesterol → cholesterol esters + lysolecithin \# The role of bile acids in the body? -- participate in the formation of chylomicrons -- participate in the formation of lipoproteins \+ participate in the formation of micelles -- participate in the formation of acetone \# What sequence of organs and tissues is characteristic of the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids? \+ liver, gall bladder, intestine, portal vein -- intestines, liver, gallbladder, portal vein -- liver, intestine, portal vein, gallbladder -- gallbladder, liver, intestines \# Which enzyme breaks down chylomicron triglycerides and very low density lipoproteins (VLDL)? -- pancreatic lipase -- tissue lipase -- cholesterol esterase. \+ lipoprotein lipase \# Why is the formation of an excess amount of acetyl-CoA and its incomplete utilization in the Krebs cycle dangerous? \+ the number of ketone bodies increases sharply -- glucose formation slows down -- absorption of fats in the intestines is impaired -- glycogen reserves in the liver are reduced. \# What contributes to the development of gallstone disease? -- Decreased formation of cholesterol and cephalin -- Increased formation of bile acids and glycerol \+ Decreased formation of bile acids and lecithin -- increased formation of lipoproteins and apoproteins \# A 45-year-old man consulted a doctor with complaints of constant thirst and frequent urination. Upon examination, he was overweight and smelled of acetone from his breath. The doctor suggested diabetes. What indicator in the biochemical blood test is expected to change in this pathology? \+ increased levels of ketone bodies -- increase in protein content -- decrease in glucose levels -- reduction of urea content \# A 15-year-old teenager with suspected obesity is in the clinic. Plasma on an empty stomach is "chylous". What additional biochemical parameters need to be examined (HDL - high-density lipoproteins)? -- HDL cholesterol -- total cholesterol -- blood plasma glucose \+ triacylglycerols \# The patient, after a course of treatment for atherosclerosis and strict adherence to dietary recommendations, donated blood for a lipid spectrum test. Which of the following lipoproteins reflect the effectiveness of treatment when tested in the blood (LDL - low-density lipoproteins; HDL - high-density lipoproteins; VLDL - very low-density lipoproteins)? -- Chylomicrons -- LDL -- VLDL \+ HDL \# In a patient with cholelithiasis, a biochemical blood test revealed an increase in alkaline phosphatase activity and the level of bile acids, as well as steatorrhea. What can be recommended to the patient? \+ limit fatty foods -- use of animal fats -- increase in carbohydrates -- increase in proteins \# An examination of a teenager suffering from xanthomatosis revealed familial hypercholesterolemia. What additional biochemical indicator needs to be examined to clarify the diagnosis (LDL - low-density lipoproteins; HDL - high-density lipoproteins)? -- glucose -- HDL \+ LDL -- Urea \# What does positive nitrogen balance mean? \+ nitrogen from food proteins more than nitrogen excreted from the body -- the nitrogen of food proteins is equal to the nitrogen excreted from the body -- more protein is synthesized in cells than is supplied with food -- less protein is synthesized in cells than is supplied with food \# What is the pH of normal gastric juice? -- 3.0- 5.0 -- 8.8- 9.0 \+ 1.5- 2.0 -- 5.5- 6.8 \# What is the main inorganic component of gastric juice? \+ hydrochloric acid -- hydrogen peroxide -- carbon dioxide -- ammonium sulfate \# What chemical properties are inherent in normal gastric juice? \+ liquid with a slightly acidic odor, colorless, slightly viscous, released 2 liters per day -- liquid with a sharply sour odor, colorless, slightly viscous, released 2 liters per day -- liquid with a slightly acidic odor, colorless, very viscous, released 2 liters per day -- liquid, odorless, colorless, slightly viscous, released 3 liters per day \# What is protein rotting? -- breakdown of amino acids under the influence of intestinal juice enzymes \+ breakdown of amino acids under the influence of colon microflora -- restoration under the influence of tissue reductases -- deamination by tissue deaminases \# What are formed from tyrosine when proteins rot in the large intestine? -- methyl mercaptan, hydrogen sulfide -- putrescine, cadaverine \+ cresol, phenol -- toluene, pyridine \# What are formed from tryptophan when proteins rot in the large intestine? -- hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan -- toluene, pyridine -- putrescine, cadaverine \+ indole, skatole \# What is formed from lysine when proteins rot in the large intestine? -- indican \+ cadaverine -- cresol -- putrescine \# What is formed from ornithine when proteins rot in the large intestine? -- cadaverine -- indican -- indole \+ putrescine \# Which organs are involved in the synthesis of creatine? \+ kidneys and liver -- heart and lungs -- intestinal mucosa and muscles -- skeletal muscles and myocardium \# What happens during transamination? -- intermolecular transfer of thio groups \+ intermolecular transfer of amino groups -- intermolecular transfer of methyl group -- intermolecular transfer of ethyl group \# What reactions occur with amino acids produce biogenic amines? -- oxidative deamination -- transamination \+ decarboxylation -- amidation \# What physiological effects does serotonin have? -- increases the secretion of hydrochloric acid \+ constricts blood vessels -- inhibits the conduction of nerve impulses -- improves blood supply to the brain \# Which amino acid is the precursor to gamma-aminobutyric acid? -- histidine -- tyrosine \+ glutamic acid -- aspartic acid \# Which amino acid produces histamine when decarboxylated? \+ histidine -- tryptophan -- aspartic acid -- tyrosine \# What type of amino acid deamination is the main one? -- restorative -- hydrolytic -- intramolecular \+ oxidative \# What reaction takes part in the neutralization of ammonia with the formation of asparagine and glutamine? -- transamination \+ amidation -- decarboxylation of keto acids -- deamination \# What product is formed during ammonium genesis? -- biogenic amine \+ ammonium cation -- urea -- ammonia \# What final product is formed during the oxidation of purine bases in humans? -- urea -- hypoxanthine \+ uric acid -- xanthine \# What substances turn into uric acid when oxidized? \+ purine bases -- thymine derivatives -- uracil derivatives -- lysine derivatives \# Which substance is one of the end products of simple protein metabolism? \+ urea -- hippurate -- urates -- acetoacetate \# What substance excreted in feces is the end product of the metabolism of the prosthetic group of hemoglobin? -- creatinine -- bilirubin \+ stercobilin -- urea \# What substance is deposited in joints, tendons, and skin during gout? -- urea -- oxalate -- creatine \+ urate \# A study of gastric juice showed that the total acidity is "0", free HCl is not determined. Pepsin and gastricsin are absent. What is this condition called?: \+ achylia -- achlorhydria -- hypochlorhydria -- hypochloremia \# Gastric juice is yellow. There is a dysfunction of the pylorus as a result of the lack of hydrochloric acid. What is the cause of this condition? -- presence of blood in gastric juice \+ presence of bile in gastric juice -- presence of glucose in gastric juice -- presence of volatile fatty acids in gastric juice \# Gastric contents are greenish in color. What is the cause of this condition? -- presence of blood in gastric juice -- presence of glucose in gastric juice -- presence of lactate in gastric juice \+ presence of bile in gastric juice \# Gastric juice has the color of \"coffee grounds\". What pathological component causes this condition? \+ blood -- bile -- indican -- lactate \# Which proenzyme is activated in excess quantities in the stomach during gastric ulcer? -- trypsinogen \+ pepsinogen -- proelastase -- chymotrypsinogen \# Lactic acid was found in the patient's gastric juice. What condition suggests the presence of this component? -- hyperacid gastritis \+ stomach cancer -- pancreatitis -- stomach ulcer \# Why is only glutamic acid takes part in oxidative deamination in a living organism? \+ since glutamate dehydrogenase is active at physiological pH values -- since glutamate dehydrogenase is inactive at physiological pH values -- since glutamate dehydrogenase has relative specificity -- since glutamate dehydrogenase oxidizes other amino acids \# Symptoms of hyperammonemia are nausea, vomiting, dizziness, convulsions, loss of consciousness. What causes these symptoms? \+ Effect of ammonia on the brain -- Effect of ammonia on the kidneys -- Effect of ammonia on muscles -- The effect of ammonia on the intestines \# Why is gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) used to treat cerebrovascular diseases and cerebrovascular accidents? -- GABA constricts blood vessels -- Promotes increased secretion of hydrochloric acid -- GABA activates excitation processes \+ GABA dilates blood vessels \# What is the reason for the use of histamine in diagnosing the functional state of the stomach? -- Histamine inhibits the conduction of nerve impulses \+ Histamine causes increased secretion of gastric juice -- Histamine constricts blood vessels, increases peristalsis -- Histamine improves blood supply to the stomach \# The patient complains of acute pain in the joints, especially in the area of the big toe. A large amount of uric acid was found in the blood and urine. Which of the following conditions is characterized by the presence of these symptoms? -- Diabetes -- Atherosclerosis \+ Gout -- Obesity \# The patient has a peptic ulcer of the stomach and duodenum. A study of gastric juice showed that total acidity and free HCl were increased. What is this condition called? -- achlorhydria \+ hyperchlorhydria -- hypochlorhydria -- hyperchloremia \# A study of gastric juice showed that total acidity is 20 TU, free HCl -- 12 TU. What is this condition called? -- achlorhydria -- hyperchlorhydria -- hypochloremia \+ hypochlorhydria \# Which amino acid deficiency can lead to fatty liver infiltration (hepatosis)? -- tryptophan \+ methionine -- tyrosine -- threonine \# What is the process of passage of electrolytes, creatine and albumin from the blood into the bile ducts called? -- reabsorption \+ filtering -- conjugation -- agglutination \# Which of the following reactions for the formation of CO~2~, as the final product, is common for the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins? -- decarboxylation of acetoacetic acid \+ oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate -- decarboxylation reactions of glutamic acid -- pentose cycle of glucose oxidation \# What intermediate substance connects the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids? -- glycerin -- acetoacetate -- fumarate \+ pyruvate \# Which process is the common pathway of catabolism in the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids? \+ tricarboxylic acid cycle -- decarboxylation of amino acids -- decarboxylation of acetoacetate -- glucose-alanine cycle \# What is the common source of energy and connects the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and lipids related to each other (PGA - phosphoglyceraldehyde)? -- GTF \+ NADH~2~ -- Acetoacetate -- PGA \# Which body system provides metabolic control: -- lymphatic -- excretory \+ endocrine -- connecting \# What substances are needed to convert proteins into carbohydrates? \+ amino acid deamination products -- products of decarboxylation of amino acids -- amino acid amidation products -- amino acid reduction products \# Specify 2 functions of TPP in the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate: \+ Activation of pyruvate \+ Decarboxylation -- Oxidation of oxyethyl during LA transfer -- Transfer of 2H from LA to NAD+ \# Specify 2 functions of the Krebs cycle: \+ energy \+ integrative -- enzymatic -- protective \# Specify 2 functions of the Krebs cycle: \+ amphibolic \+ hydrogen-donating -- nutritious -- transport \# Specify 2 modified acetyl-CoA fragments: \+ ketogenic amino acids \+ fatty acids -- glycerin -- glycogen amino acids \# Indicate 2 phases of the general catabolic pathway: \+ Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate \+ Acetyl condenses with oxaloacetate and decomposes to CO~2~ and H~2~O -- Oxidative decarboxylation of beta-keto acid (alpha-ketoglutarate) -- Oxidative decarboxylation of alpha hydroxy acid (isocitrate) \# Specify the 2 most important metabolites of the Krebs cycle: \+ isocitrate \+ alpha-ketoglutarate -- pyruvate -- maleinate \# Specify the 2 most important metabolites of the Krebs cycle: \+ succinate \+ oxaloacetate -- pyruvate -- maleinate \# Lipid digestion involves: \+ Bile acids \+ Lipase -- Alkalis -- Acids \# Lipase activity depends on: \+ Colipases \+ Bile acids -- Of hydrochloric acid -- Phosphodiesterases \# Colipase provides the following processes: \+ The hydrophobic domain interacts with emulsified lipids \+ The hydrophilic domain changes the conformation of lipase and facilitates (accelerates) interaction with the substrate -- Hydrophilic domain interacts with emulsified lipids -- The hydrophobic domain changes the conformation of lipase and facilitates (accelerates) interaction with the substrate \# Bile acids are involved in: \+ Emulsification of lipids \+ Activate lipase -- Do not have a bactericidal effect -- Form the structure of non-cleoproteins \# Functions of apolipoproteins: \+ Interaction with membrane receptors \+ Do not have enzymatic activity -- Form the structure of non-cleoproteins -- Prevents interaction with receptors \# The transition of chylomicrons from blood to tissue is associated with: \+ From the content of HDL, which provides chylomicrons apo-C-II and E proteins \+ From the rate of transition of apo-C-II and E into chylomicrons -- PL lipase activity -- From the content of LDL, which provides chylomicrons apo-C-II and E proteins \# Steatorrhea develops when: \+ Diseases of the hepatobiliary system \+ Cholelithiasis, stricture and bending of the bile ducts, tumors of the head of the pancreas -- Leukemia -- Diathesis \# Functions of triglycerides: \+ Energy \+ Mechanical protection of organs from external influences -- Participates in gas exchange -- Contribute to an increase in temperature \# The following processes occur in adipocytes: \+ pentose phosphate cycle of glucose oxidation \+ oxidation of triglycerides and fatty acids -- ornithine cycle -- mineralocorticoid \# There are 2 types of receptors in the membranes of adipocytes: \+ Catecholamines \+ Insulin -- Mineralocorticoid -- Somatomedin \# Increased glycolysis is observed when exposed to the following hormones: \+ STH \+ ACTH -- Glycoproteins -- Testosterone \# Increased glycolysis is observed when exposed to the following factors: \+ Stress \+ Physical activity -- Hyperventilation -- Gluttony \# Ketonemia and ketonuria are observed with: \+ Fasting \+ Diabetes mellitus -- Gluttony -- Diabetes insipidus \# The functions of cholesterol in the body: \+ Synthesis of steroid hormones \+ Vitamin D synthesis -- Synthesis of nucleoproteins -- Glucogon synthesis \# With hereditary (type 1 dyslipoproteinemia) defect of lipoprotein lipase and apoC-2 the following is observed: \+ Increase in the content of CM and VLDL in the blood \+ Hypertriglyceridemia -- High risk of developing atherosclerosis -- Hypercholesterolemia \# Familial (type 2) hypercholesterolemia develops with: \+ Defect of LDL receptors \+ Mutations of the apoB-100 gene -- Defect of HDL receptors -- Mutations of the apoC-100 gene \# With familial (type 2) hypercholesterolemia, the following is observed: \+ Increased cholesterol and LDL levels in the blood \+ Early atherosclerosis, xanthomatosis -- Hypocholesterolemia and increased HDL levels in the blood -- Decrease in the content of cholesterol and VLDL in the blood \# With familial mixed (type 3) dyslipoproteinemia, the following is observed: \+ Hypercholesterolemia \+ Increase in the blood content of cholesterol, VLDL, LDL -- Hypotriglyceridemia -- There is no risk of developing atherosclerosis \# The development of types 4 and 5 familial hypertriglyceridemia is associated with: \+ Genetic heterogeneity \+ Hyperinsulinemia -- Chronic heart failure -- Diabetes insipidus \# With types 4 and 5 of familial hypertriglyceridemia, the following is observed: \+ Increase in blood levels of VLDL and LDL \+ Hypertriglyceridemia -- Moderate hypocholesterolemia -- There is no risk of developing atherosclerosis \# Established factors for the development of atherosclerosis: \+ Dyslipoproteinemia \+ Hypercholesterolemia -- Hyper-alpha lipoproteinemia -- Hypotriglyceridemia \# The development of gallstone disease is caused by: \+ Activation of HMG-reductase \+ Reduced activity of cholesterol-7-alpha-hydroxylase -- Decreased HMG-reductase activity -- Activation of cholesterol-7-alpha-hydroxylase \# The following types of gallstones are distinguished: \+ Cholesterol \+ Bilirubin -- Phosphate -- Oxalate \# The development of cholelithiasis is promoted by: \+ Foods rich with cholesterol \+ High-calorie nutrition -- Low-calorie diet -- Respiratory diseases \# Primary obesity is observed when: \+ Defects of useless cycles \+ Increased metabolism in individuals predisposed to the development of obesity -- Increased metabolism in individuals predisposed to developing cachexia -- Disconnection between oxidation and phosphorylation \# Lipotropic factors include: \+ Pyridoxal phosphate and folic acid \+ Methionine -- Glycine, CTP -- Tryptophan, inositol \# Which metabolites during oxidation are classified as ketone bodies: \+ betta-hydroxybutyric acid \+ Acetoacetic acid -- Crotonic acid -- Butyric acid \# Oxidation substrate during glycolysis and glycogenolysis: \+ 3-Phosphoglyceraldehyde -- 2-Phosphoglyceric acid -- Phosphodioxyacetone -- 1,3-phosphoglyceric acid \# Proteolytic enzymes of pancreatic juice \+ Trypsinogen \+ Chymotrypsinogen -- Renin -- Pepsin \# Name the enzymes of biological oxidation during the oxidation of HMFA \+ Dehydrogenase (FAD) \+ Dehydrogenase (NAD) -- Carboxylase (H) -- Decarboxylase (TPF) \# Proteolytic enzymes of gastric juice \+ Renin \+ Pepsinogen -- Aminopeptidases -- Dipeptidase \# Which amino acids are involved in neutralizing ammonia in nervous tissue \+ Aspartic \+ Glutamine -- Citrulline -- Ornithine \# Which metabolites during oxidation are classified as ketone bodies \+ Hydroxobutyric acid \+ Acetoacetic acid -- Butyric acid -- Crotonic acid \# Which amino acids belong to monoamino dicarbon acids \+ Aspartic \+ Glutamine -- Citrulline -- Arginine \# Mechanism of hydrolytic deamination \+ Water connection \+ Ammonia formation -- Withdrawal of water -- Addition of hydrogen \# Which HMFAs are saturated \+ Stearic \+ Palmitic -- Oleic -- Lauric \# Proteolytic enzymes of pancreatic juice: \+ Trypsinogen \+ Chymorepsinogen -- Renin -- Pepsin \# Specify 2 characteristic features of the coenzyme of vitamin PP: \+ is a dinucleotide \+ is a donor of electrons and protons -- is a mononucleotide -- participates in decarboxylation \# Indicate 2 main points of energy release in the electron transport chain: \+ Cytochrome b → cytochrome c~1~ \+ Cytochrome a → cytochrome a~3~ -- FADH~2~ → ubiquinone -- ubiquinone → cytochrome b \# Specify 2 indicators of the efficiency of coupling oxidation with phosphorylation: \+ r/o=3 \+ r/o=2 -- r/o=1 -- r/o=4 \# Specify 2 main sources of energy: \+ carbohydrates \+ lipids -- vitamins -- microelements \# List 2 types of electron transport chains: \+ full \+ short -- long -- extended \# Specify 2 main roles of microsomal oxidation: \+ Oxidation of metabolites during steroid synthesis \+ Detoxification of foreign substances -- Reduction of hydrophobic properties of lipids -- Increase in hydrophobic properties of lipids \# Specify 2 coenzymes of the respiratory chain: \+ NAD \+ FAD -- TPP -- LA \# Specify 2 types of oxidation: \+ Oxidation of a hydrocarbon fragment into an alcohol \+ Oxidation of an alcohol fragment into a ketone or aldehyde -- Oxidation of a protein fragment into an aldehyde -- Alcoholic fermentation \# Specify 2 results of the action of substances that affect the functioning of the respiratory chain: \+ ADP increases breathing rate \+ Thyroxine and dinitrophenol uncouple oxidation and phosphorylation -- ATP increases the rate of respiration -- Cyanide activates respiration \# To convert isocitrate into oxaloacetate, 2 standard oxidation processes are used: \+ Oxidative decarboxylation of beta-hydroxy acid (isocitrate) \+ Oxidative decarboxylation of alpha-keto acid (alpha-ketoglutarate) -- Oxidative decarboxylation of alpha hydroxy acid (isocitrate) -- Oxidative decarboxylation of beta-keto acid (alpha-ketoglutarate) \# Specify 2 modified pyruvate fragments: \+ carbohydrates \+ glycogen amino acids -- ketogenic amino acids -- fatty acid \# Specify the end products of the Krebs cycle: \+ 12 ATP molecules \+ 2 CO~2~ molecules -- 24 ATP molecules -- 4 CO~2~ molecules \# Specify 2 enzymes involved in the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate: \+ pyruvate decarboxylase \+ pyruvate transacetylase -- dihydrolipoyltransacylase -- dihydrolipoylcarboxylase \# Name 2 types of amylase involved in the breakdown of starch \+ beta amylase \+ alpha amylase -- alpha 3-amylase -- sigma amylase \# Indicate the main 2 functions of carbohydrates in the body. \+ energy \+ structural -- transport -- amphibolic \# Name 2 representatives of disaccharides that are digested in the intestine under the influence of sucrase and lactase. \+ sucrose \+ lactose -- glucose -- fructose \# Parietal digestion of disaccharides is provided by 2 enzymes: \+ maltase \+ sucrase -- glucose -- fructase \# Name the key enzymes of gluconeogenesis \+ pyruvate carboxylase \+ glucose 6-phosphatase -- enolase -- pyruvate kinase \# Name the key enzymes of gluconeogenesis \+ phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase \+ fructose-1,6-diphosphatase -- glucose oxidase -- pyruvate kinase \# Name 2 substrates of the Krebs cycle, the oxidation of which reduces NAD: \+ isocitrate \+ alpha-ketoglutorate -- succinate -- pyruvate \# Name the main functions of the Krebs cycle \+ catabolic \+ anabolic -- structural -- transport \# Name the main functions of the Krebs cycle \+ energy \+ H^+^-donor -- catalytic -- transport \# The speed of functioning of the Krebs cycle is ensured by 3 factors. \+ oxaloacetate concentrations \+ citrate synthase activity -- protein concentration -- fat concentration \# Name 2 irreversible enzyme units in glycolysis \+ Hexokinase \+ Phosphofructokinase -- Triosephosphate isomerase -- Glyceraldehyde isomerase \# Name the causes and consequences of galactosemia \+ Galactose 1-phosphate uridyl transferase deficiency \+ Manifestations: refusal to eat, vomiting, diarrhea, cataracts -- Fructose 1 phosphate deficiency -- Manifestations: increased blood clotting \# Name 2 groups of carbohydrates \+ heteropoly saccharides \+ homopoly saccharides -- glycoproteins -- glycolipids \# In animals and humans there are main monosaccharides: \+ galactose \+ glucose -- xylulose -- ribulose \# Name a representative of disaccharides that are digested in the intestine under the action of lactase, maltase: \+ maltose \+ lactose -- xylulose -- raffinose \# Name a representative of polysaccharides whose monomer is glucose: \+ starch \+ glycogen -- keratan sulfatides -- mucopolysaccharides \# Name the enzyme under the influence of which starch and glycogen are broken down to maltose in the digestive tract \+ alpha amylase \+ amylo-1,6-glucosidase -- delta amylase -- sigma amylase \# 2 main enzymes of the ornithine urea cycle in mitochondria: \+ carbamoylphosphate synthetase \+ ornithine carbamoyltransferase -- arginine succinate synthetase -- arginine succinate lyase \# Specify 2 organs involved in the synthesis of creatine: \+ liver \+ kidney -- heart -- brain \# Specify 2 amino acids involved in creatine synthesis: \+ glycine \+ arginine -- alanine -- glutamine \# Increased secretion (about 50 times) of amino acids, characteristic of congenital cysteinuria: \+ cystine \+ lysine -- phenylalanine -- histidine \# Signs characteristic of congenital phenylketonuria: \+ increased urinary excretion of phenylacetylglutamine \+ increased urinary excretion of phenylpyruvate -- increased excretion of arginine in urine -- increased excretion of ornithine in urine \# 2 signs of congenital albinism: \+ lack of melanin pigment in the skin, hair and retina \+ absence of tyrosinase in melanocytes -- increase in homogentesic acid in urine -- increased phenylpyruvate in urine \# 2 intermediate metabolites formed during the second stage of glycolytic breakdown of glucose \+ 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate \+ phosphoenolpyruvate -- fructose-6-phosphate -- glucose-6-phosphate \#2 indicator of gastric acidity, widely used in clinical practice. \+ total acidity \+ free hydrochloric acidity -- amount of acetic acid -- amount of phosphoric acid \# List 3 representatives of hormones involved in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism: \+ Insulin \+ Glucagon -- Testosterone -- Vasopressin \+ Cortisol -- Somatotropin \# Specify 3 enzymes involved in the mobilization of glycogen in the liver through a cascade mechanism: \+ adenylate cyclase -- alpha amylase \+ phosphorylase -- lactase \+ protein kinase -- glycogen synthetase \# List 3 reasons for the development of hyperglycemia under the influence of glucocorticoids: \+ inhibition of glucose uptake by cells \+ increased gluconeogenesis -- increased glucose uptake by cells \+ inhibition of glycogen synthesis -- inhibition of gluconeogenesis -- increased glycogen synthesis \# Specify the 3 main mechanisms of glucagon's influence on carbohydrate metabolism: \+ mobilizes liver glycogen -- mobilizes muscle glycogen -- enhances glucose synthesis \+ enhances gluconeogenesis \+ suppresses glycolysis -- suppresses gluconeogenesis \# Give 3 names for the direct pathway of glucose oxidation: \+ direct pathway of glucose oxidation -- glycolysis \+ pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) -- aerobic oxidation \+ apotomic pathway -- anaerobic pathway \# List the 3 key enzymes of anaerobic glycolysis: \+ Hexokinase -- Triosephosphate isomerase \+ Pyruvate kinase -- Glyceraldehyde isomerase \+ Phosphofructokinase -- Phosphorylase \# Specify 3 types of amylases involved in the breakdown of starch: \+ alpha-amylase -- sigma-amylase -- omega amylase -- phosphorylase \+ beta-amylase \+ gamma-amylase \# List 3 representatives of hormones involved in the regulation of carbohydrate metabolism: \+ Insulin \+ Glucagon -- Testosterone -- Vasopressin \+ Cortisol -- Somatotropin \# Specify 3 enzymes involved in the mobilization of glycogen in the liver through a cascade mechanism: \+ adenylate cyclase -- alpha amylase \+ phosphorylase -- lactase \+ protein kinase -- glycogen synthetase \# List 3 reasons for the development of hyperglycemia under the influence of glucocorticoids: \+ inhibition of glucose uptake by cells \+ increased gluconeogenesis -- increased glucose uptake by cells \+ inhibition of glycogen synthesis -- inhibition of gluconeogenesis -- glycogen synthesis \# Specify the 3 main mechanisms of glucagon's influence on carbohydrate metabolism: \+ mobilizes liver glycogen -- mobilizes muscle glycogen -- enhances glucose synthesis \+ enhances gluconeogenesis \+ suppresses glycolysis -- suppresses gluconeogenesis \# Name 3 enzymes involved in the breakdown of starch and glycogen to maltose: \+ alpha-amylase \+ amylo-1,6 glucosidase \+ oligo-1,6 glucosidase -- gamma amylase -- beta amylase -- sigma-amylase \# List 3 coenzymes that are relatively tightly associated with the pyruvate dehydrogenase multienzyme complex. \+ TPF \+ Lipoic acid amide \+ FAD -- coenzyme A -- NAD -- NADP \# List 3 Krebs cycle substrates involved in the amphibolic pathway \+ succinyl-CoA -- fumarate \+ alpha-ketoglutarate \+ oxaloacetate -- cis-aconitate -- isocitrate \# Indicate the Krebs cycle substrates involved in the amphibolic pathway. \+ succinyl CoA \+ alpha-ketoglutarate \+ oxaloacetate -- fumarate -- isocitrate -- malate \# List 3 enzymes involved in active transport -- translocases -- carnitine transferase \+ K, Na-- ATP-- aza \+ Ca-- ATPase -- enzyme-free transfer of O2, CO2 \+ H+ -- ATPase \# Name 3 one-carbon fragments in which the coenzyme THFA is involved in the transfer \+ methyl group -- carboxyl group \+ methylene group -- amino group \+ hydroxymethyl group -- imino group \# List 3 lipid essential food components. -- palmithioxylate -- beguine acid \+ linoleic acid \+ linolenic acid \+ arachidonic acid -- cardiolipin synthase \# List 3 common metabolites in the synthesis of sphingomyelins and glycolipids \+ sphingosine -- phosphatidylcholine \+ fatty acids -- phosphotidic acid \+ ceramide -- sialic acid \# List 3 common metabolites for the synthesis of cholesterol and ketone bodies \+ Acetyl CoA -- Mevalonic acid -- Acetoacetic acid \+ Aceto-acetylCoA \+ Betta--hydroxy betamethylglutarylCoA -- Lanosterol \# List 3 enzymes that catalyze the formation of ketone bodies in pathology. \+ acetyl--CoA-- acetyltransferase -- beta HMG reductase -- acetyl-CoAdehydrogenase \+ betta HMG-CoA synthetase \+ betta HMG lyase -- betta keto-acyl hydratase \# List 3 enzymes in the initial stage of cholesterol synthesis \+ Thiolase -- acyl-CoA dehydrogenase \+ betta HMG-CoA synthetase -- betta HMG-CoA lyase \+ betta HMG-CoA reductase -- mevalonate kinase \# The amount of ATP formed during the complete oxidation of palmitic, stearic and oleic acids -- 136 -- 153 \+ 130 \+ 147 \+ 145 -- 152 \# Specify 3 hormones that enhance lipolysis \+ catecholamines -- insulin \+ sex hormones -- vasopressin \+ growth hormone -- parathyroid hormone \# Specify 3 ways of using acetyl-CoA in the body -- glucose synthesis -- synthesis of polyunsaturated acids \+ oxidation in the Krebs cycle \+ synthesis of ketone bodies \+ cholesterol synthesis -- synthesis of glycogenic amino acids \# List the 3 main stages of cholesterol synthesis -- synthesis of beta-OMG -- synthesis of farsinyl pyrophosphate \+ conversion of mevalonate to squalene -- esterification of cholesterol \+ synthesis of mevalonate from acetyl CoA \+ cyclization of squalene to cholesterol \# 3 one-carbon groups involved in various biochemical transformations in THFA \+ Formic -- Carboxyl \+ Methyl \+ Methylene -- Sulfhydryl -- Hydroxyl \# 3 types of lipid substances found in membranes \+ phospholipids -- fatty acid \+ glycolipids -- triglycerides -- lipoproteins \+ cholesterol \# Basic properties of membranes \+ transverse asymmetry -- transverse symmetry \+ liquid-crystallinity \+ selective permeability -- non-liquid -- non-crystalline -- permeability of all substances \#3 ways to transport substances across a membrane \+ simple diffusion -- complex diffusion -- inactive transport \+ facilitated diffusion \+ active transport -- endocytosis \# 3 types of ATPases that provide ion transport through biomembranes \+ Na, K -- ATPase -- P -- ATPase -- Fe -- ATPase \+ Ca -- ATPase -- Cu -- ATPase \+ H+ -- ATPase \#3 enzymes involved in oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate \+ Pyruvate dehydrogenase -- Carbonic anhydrase -- Citrate synthetase \+ Dihydrolipoylacetyltransferase \+ Dihydrolipoyldehydrogenase -- Malate dehydrogenase \# 3 coenzymes that are part of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex \+ TPP \+ CoA-- SН -- TFGK -- UDGK \+ lipoic acid amide -- PAPS \#3 Krebs cycle titles (name) \+ tricarboxylic acid cycle \+ Krebs cycle -- Cori cycle \+ citrate cycle -- Pasteur cycle -- ornithine cycle \#3 tricarboxylic acids involved in the Krebs cycle \+ citrate -- pyruvate \+ cis-aconitate -- succinate \+ isocitrate -- acetyl-CoA \#3 substrates oxidized in the Krebs cycle \+ isocitrate -- citrate -- pyruvate -- alanine \+ succinate \+ malate \# 3 coenzymes that are part of the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex \+ TPP -- THFA \+ lipoic acid amide -- UDPGA \+ CoA-- SH -- PAPS \#3 enzymes involved in the oxidation of Krebs cycle substrates \+ isocitrate dehydrogenase \+ malate dehydrogenase -- aconitate hydratase \+ alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase -- citrate synthetase -- succinyl-CoA synthetase \#3 macroergic intermediate metabolites of aerobic breakdown of glucose in tissues \+ acetyl-CoA -- glucose-1-phosphate \+ phosphoenolpyruvate -- fructose-6-phosphate \+ 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate -- glycerol-3-phosphate \# 3 main differences between the biological oxidation of the substrate and the combustion process of substances \+ occurs at low temperatures -- occurs at high temperatures -- flame formation -- occurs in the absence of water \+ no flame formation \+ occurs in the presence of water \# List 3 groups of enzymes involved in tissue respiration \+ pyridine-dependent dehydrogenase -- thiamine-dependent dehydrogenase \+ flavin-dependent dehydrogenase -- monoamine oxidase \+ cytochromes -- diamine oxidase \#5 representatives of cytochromes of the respiratory chain \+ b, с -- b~5~ -- с~3~ \+ с~1~ \+ а, а~3~ -- P450 \# Localization of 3ADP phosphorylation sites in the respiratory chain \+ between NAD and FAD -- between FMN and CO~2~ -- between FMN and NO~2~ \+ between cytochromes b and c -- between cytochromes b and FAD \+ between cytochromes a~3~ and oxygen \# 3 ways to transfer electrons and protons through the respiratory chain \+ short \+ full -- long \+ shortened -- not shortened -- incomplete \#3 phosphorylation ratio values \+ P/O = 0 -- P/O = 6 -- P/O = 4 \+ P/O = 2 -- P/O = 5 \+ P/O = 3 \# List 3 organs involved in creatine synthesis \+ kidneys -- heart -- brain \+ liver \+ muscles -- adrenal gland \# List 3 amino acids involved in creatine synthesis \+ glycine -- alanine \+ arginine -- glutamine \+ methionine -- asparagine \# Specify 3 types of blood plasma lipoproteins \+ alpha-lipoproteins -- pre-alpha lipoproteins \+ beta-lipoproteins -- pre-gamma-lipoproteins \+ pre-beta-lipoproteins -- pre-chylomicrons \# List 3 enzymes involved in the glycolytic stage of glucose oxidation \+ hexokinase -- citrate synthetase \+ aldolase \+ phosphofructokinase -- glucose-6-phosphatase -- pyruvate carboxylase \# List 3 high-energy compounds formed during aerobic glycolysis \+ 1,3-diphosphoglycerate -- 2-phosphoglycerate -- pyruvate \+ phosphoenolpyruvate \+ succinyl-CoA -- malate \# List 3 substrates of the Krebs cycle related to tricarboxylic acids \+ isocitrate -- oxaloacetate \+ cis-- aconitate -- fumarate \+ citric acid -- succinate \# List 3 substrates of aerobic glycolysis that are oxidized by NAD-dependent dehydrogenases \+ glyceraldehyde triphosphate -- fumarate \+ pyruvate -- succinate \+ isocitrate -- citrate \# List 3 substrates that are a source of CO~2~ formation in the aerobic glycolysis pathway \+ pyruvate -- citrate -- lactate \+ isocitrate \+ alpha-ketoglutarate -- fumarate \# List the 3 initial enzymes of the Krebs cycle \+ citrate synthetase -- fumarase \+ aconitate hydratase -- succinate dehydrogenase -- malate dehydrogenase \+ citrate dehydrogenase \# List 3 points of regulation of the functioning of the Krebs cycle \+ oxaloacetate concentration -- pyruvate kinase activity \+ citrate synthase activity -- succinate dehydrogenase activity \+ NAD-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase activity -- malate dehydrogenase activity \# Indicate 3 coenzymes included in the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex \+ TPP -- FMN -- ubiquinone \+ Lipoic acid amide \+ CoA -- S--adenosylmethionine \# List 3 substrates that are oxidized by NADP-dependent dehydrogenase \+ malate -- acyl -- CoA \+ isocitrate -- succinate -- alpha-ketoglutarate \+ glucose-- 6-- phosphate \# Indicate 3 ways of using hydrogen from reduced codehydrogenase - NADPH~2~ \+ cholesterol synthesis -- synthesis of ketone bodies \+ synthesis of fatty acids -- creatine synthesis \+ microsomal oxidation -- synthesis of adrenaline \# The main three functions of carbohydrates in the body. \+ energy -- transport -- hormonal \+ structural \+ protective -- catalytic \# Main three groups of carbohydrates \+ monosaccharides \+ oligosaccharides \+ polysaccharides -- heterosaccharides -- homosaccharides -- glycoproteins \# Three main types of monosaccharides metabolized in the body of animals and humans. \+ glucose -- mannose -- xylulose -- ribulose \+ galactose \+ fructose \# Three representatives of disaccharides, digested in the intestine under the influence of sucrase, lactase, maltase. \+ sucrose -- erythrulose \+ maltose -- xylulose -- raffinose \+ lactose \# Name of 3 representatives of polysaccharides, the monomer of which is glucose \+ starch \+ glycogen \+ cellulose -- keratan sulfatides -- mucopolysaccharides -- heparin \# Three types of amylase involved in the breakdown of starch \+ alpha-amylase \+ beta-amylase -- sigma-amylase -- omega amylase -- delta-amylase \+ gamma-amylase \# Three enzymes under the influence of which starch and glycogen are broken down into maltose in the digestive tract. \+ alpha-amylase -- delta-amylase \+ amylo-1,6- glucosidase -- gamma amylase -- sigma-- amylase \+ oligo-1,6- glucosidase (terminal dextrinase) \# Three enzymes that provide parietal (extracellular) digestion of disaccharides. \+ maltase -- alpha amylase -- beta amylase -- gamma amylase \+ sucrase \+ lactase \# Three intermediate substrates formed during the synthesis of glycogen from glucose -- fructose-- 1-- phosphate -- glucose-- 3-- phosphate -- glucose -- 1,6-- phosphate \+ glucose-- 1-- phosphate \+ glucose-- 6-- phosphate \+ uridine diphosphoglucose \#3 enzymes involved in the process of glycogen synthesis from glucose. \+ Hexokinase \+ glucose-1-phosphate uridyl transferase \+ phosphoglucomutase -- phosphorylase -- nucleoside diphosphate kinase -- pyrophosphate mutase \# 3 groups of enzymes that catalyze various stages of phospholytic cleavage of glucose residues from glycogen under the influence of adrenaline in the liver \+ adenylate cyclase \+ protein kinase -- ATP-ase -- glucokinase -- glycogen synthetase \+ phosphorylase kinases \# The main three pathways for the breakdown of glucose in tissues \+ aerobic pathway -- beta oxidation \+ pentose phosphate pathway -- restorative path \+ anaerobic pathway -- oxidative pathway \# Three key enzymes of anaerobic glycolysis \+ hexokinase -- triosephosphate isomerase -- glyceraldehyde isomerase -- phosphorylase \+ phosphofructokinase \+ pyruvate kinase \# 3 metabolites formed from glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate in the second stage of anaerobic glycolysis before the formation of lactate \+ 1,3-- bisphosphoglycerate \+ 3-- phosphoglycerate -- glucose-- 6-- phosphate -- dihydroxyacetone phosphate -- fructose-- 1,6-- bisphosphate \+ 2-- phosphoglycerate \#3 metabolites formed during the first stage of anaerobic glucolysis. -- 3-- phosphoglycerate -- 2-- phosphoglycerate -- phosphoenolpyruvate \+ glucose-- 6-- phosphate \+ dihydroxyacetone phosphate \+ fructose-- 1,6-- bisphosphate \# Three non-key enzymes of the first stage of anaerobic glycolysis before the formation of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate -- hexokinase \+ glucose-- 6-- phosphate isomerase -- galactokinase -- lactate dehydrogenase \+ aldolase \+ triosephosphate isomerase \# Name of 3 non-key enzymes of the second stage of glycolytic breakdown of glucose, involved in the process of converting glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate into lactate. \+ glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase \+ phosphoglycerate kinase -- hexokinase -- phosphohexoisomerase -- glucose-- 6-- phosphate isomerase \+ phosphoglyceromutase \# Three enzymes required to convert galactose to glucose in the liver \+ galactakinase -- lactate dehydrogenase \+ galactose-- 1-- phosphate uridyl transferase -- pyruvate kinase -- hexokinase \+ UDP-glucose epimerase \#3 allosteric modulators regulating glycolysis and gluconeogenesis through regulatory enzymes. \+ acetyl-CoA -- fructose-1,6-bisphosphate \+ AMP -- pyruvate -- glucose-6-phosphate \+ ATP \# Basic 3 functions of the Krebs cycle \+ catabolic -- pentose phosphate pathway -- immunological \+ anabolic \+ energy -- integrative \# Three names for the direct pathway of glucose oxidation in tissues \+ direct pathway of glucose oxidation -- glycolysis \+ pentose phosphate pathway -- aerobic oxidation -- anaerobic oxidation \+ apotomic path \# Main 3 classes of lipids \+ neutral fats \+ phosphoglycerides -- phosphatidylcholine -- phosphatidylethanolamine \+ sphingolipids -- cardiolipins \# Three representatives of natural wax \+ beeswax \+ lanolin \+ spermaceti -- cholesterol -- sphingomyelins -- plasmagens \# Four main structural components of phosphoglycerides. \+ glycerol, fatty acid -- cholesterol -- amino acids -- ribose \+ phosphoric acid \+ nitrogen containing compound \#3 main groups of phosphoglycerides. \+ phosphatidylcholine \+ phosphatidylethanolamine \+ phosphatidylserine -- wax -- sterols -- sterides \# Three subclasses of sphingolipids. \+ sphingomyelins -- phospholipids \+ cerebrosides -- wax \+ gangliosides -- cardiolipins \# Three main structural components of cholesterol -- phosphoric acid -- fatty acid residue -- hexose \+ cyclopentaneperhydrophenanthrene ring \+ aliphatic side chain \+ hydroxyl group \# Three main structural components of cholesterol \+ cyclopentaneperhydrophenanthrene ring \+ aliphatic side chain \+ fatty acid residue -- carboxyl group -- hexose \- phosphoric acid \#3 basic biological functions of lipids. \+ energy -- are hormonal functions \+ are a supplier of vitamins A.D.K.E. -- source of vitamin B6 \+ are a supplier of essential fatty acids \- perform a transport function \# Three representatives of taurine-containing paired bile acid compounds that play an important role in lipid digestion. \+ taurocholic \+ taurodeoxycholic \+ taurochenodeoxycholic -- glycocholate -- cholate -- glycodeoxycholate \# Three main roles of bile acids in the digestion and absorption of lipids \+ activate pancreatic lipase -- activate trypsin -- activate lipase synthesis -- activate fats in the gastrointestinal tract \+ emulsify fats \+ promote the absorption of lipid digestion products in the intestine \# The main three substances that are products of triglyceride digestion in the intestine. \+ glycerin \+ fatty acids -- chylomicrons -- phospholipids -- triglycerides \+ monoglycerides \# Three groups of phospholipases that digest phospholipids in the intestine. \+ phospholipase A1 \+ phospholipase D -- phospholipase B -- phospholipase K -- phospholipase H \+ phospholipase A2 \# The main components of chylomicrons formed in the intestinal wall \+ triglycerides -- sphingomyelin -- glycolipids -- gangliosides \+ phospholipids \+ cholesterol \# Three sites of chylomicron triglyceride hydrolysis \+ on the surface of the hepatic chylomicron \+ on the surface of the endothelium of adipocytes -- in the kidneys -- on the surface of the lungs -- in the spleen \+ intrahepatic cells \# Three groups of lipases involved in the mobilization of reserve triglycerides \+ triglyceride lipase \+ diglyceride lipase \+ monoglyceride lipase -- phospholipase -- esterase -- lipoprotein lipase \# Three representatives of the main enzymes of the "lipolytic cascade" according to Steinberg. \+ adenylate cyclase -- lipase \+ protein kinase -- enolase \+ triglyceride lipase -- phosphodiesterase \# Stages of fatty acid oxidation in tissues \+ first stage of dehydrogenation -- synthesis of acetyl-carnitine -- breakdown of carnitine -- penetration of fatty acids into the microsomal membrane \+ hydration stage \+ second stage of dehydrogenation \# Name of 3 intermediate substrates formed during the oxidation of fatty acids. \+ acetyl-- CoA \+ beta-hydroxyacyl-CoA -- malonyl-CoA -- succinyl-CoA -- acetone \+ enoil-- CoA \# Name of three substances belonging to the group of ketone bodies \+ acetoacetic acid -- benzene \+ beta-hydroxybutyrate \+ acetone -- cresol -- indole \# Name of 3 intermediate substrates formed during the synthesis of butyric acid from malonyl-ACP and acetyl-ACP \+ acetoacetyl-- ACP \+ beta-hydroxybutyryl- ACP \+ crotonil-- ACP -- malonyl -- ACP -- ACP--SH -- NADH.H \# The name of the three enzymes involved in the synthesis of fatty acids before the formation of acetoacetyl-ACP \+ ACP-- acetyltransferase -- acetoacetyl--ACP-- reductase -- beta-hydroxybutyryl-ACP-dehydrogenase -- carnityl-ACP reductase \+ ACP -- malonyltransferase \+ Betta-ketoacyl-ACP-synthase \# 3 enzymes involved in the synthesis of fatty acids in the formation of butyric acid from acetyl-ACP and malonyl-ACP. \+ beta-ketoacyl-ACP-synthetase \+ beta-ketoacyl-ACP-reductase -- malonyl-- CoA-- ACP-- transferase -- cytrans synthetase -- lipase \+ beta-hydroxyacyl-ACP-dehydratase \#3 enzymes involved in the synthesis of triglyceride from glycerol and fatty acids \+ glycerol kinase \+ glycerol phosphate acyltransferase -- ethanolamine kinase -- malonyl-- ACP-- synthetase \+ phosphatidate phosphatase -- acetoacetyl--ACP-- reductase \# Three main stages of cholesterol biosynthesis \+ conversion of active acetate to mevalonic acid \+ formation of squalene from mevalonic acid \+ conversion of squalene to cholesterol -- acetyl-CoA synthesis -- formation of mevalonic acid from squalene -- formation of hydroxymethylgulutaryl-CoA from mevalonic acid \# Names of hormones that mobilize fatty acids from fat de