Bio Final Exam Study Guide PDF

1. The three structural classifications of joints Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial 2. The three functional classifications of joint Synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), and diarthroses (freely movable) 3. The basic structure of a...

1. The three structural classifications of joints Fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial 2. The three functional classifications of joint Synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), and diarthroses (freely movable) 3. The basic structure of a synovial joint Articular cartilage, joint (synovial) cavity, articular capsule, synovial fluid, reinforcing ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels. 4. The definition and purpose of a bursa and a tendon sheath A bursa is a fluid-filled sac that reduces friction between tissues; a tendon sheath is a tubular bursa that surrounds a tendon 5. The three types of fibrous joints and the two types of cartilaginous joints Fibrous: sutures, syndesmosis, gomphoses NO JOINT CAVITY Cartilaginous: synchondroses (hyaline cartilage), symphyses (fibrocartilage) NO JOINT CAVITY 6. The difference between hinge joints, plane joints, ball and socket joints, etc. Hinge joints - allows movement on one plane only Pivot Joints - allows rotation around a single axis Ball and socket joints - allows movement on all planes Saddle Joint - allows movement on two planes and a small degree of rotation Condyloid Joint - allow movement on two planes but limited rotation Gliding/Plane Joint: allows limited gliding or sliding movements between flat nearly flat surfaces 7. The definition of a sprain, a dislocation, and a cartilage tear Sprain: the ligaments that reinforce the joint are stretched or torn Dislocation: bones forced out of alignment Cartilage Tears: a tear or damage due to overuse of the cartilage between bones 8. The difference between the three types of arthritis we discussed and their causes Osteoarthritis: “wear and tear” , cartilage becomes soft, rough, and pitted Rheumatoid Arthritis: autoimmune disorder where the body’s immune system attacks its own tissues Gouty Arthritis: uric acid levels rise excessively in blood and is deposited in joints, causes ”gout“ 9. The symptoms of Lyme disease (and the worst creature ever to evolve on Earth) Joint pain, arthritis, neurological damage and fever. Transmitted through ticks. 10. The differences between skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscle Skeletal Muscle: longest muscle fibers, have striations, voluntary muscle, responsible for body mobility, contracts rapidly (needs periods of rest) Cardiac Muscle: ONLY in the heart, striate, not voluntary (stimulated by the nervous system), contracts at a steady rate Smooth Muscle: walls of hollow visceral organs, forces fluids/substances through channels, elongaeted cells but NOT STRIATED, involuntary muscle 11. The four characteristics of muscle tissue Excitability - can receive and respond to stimuli (usually a chemical, such as neurotransmitter) ○ respond by generating an electrical impulse and contracting Contractility - can shorten when stimulated Extensibility - can extend/stretch Elasticity - can recoil to its resting length after extending 12. The three connective tissue sheaths that surround muscles Epimysium. - outermost layer of dense irregular tissue that surrounds muscle Perimysium - covers groups of muscle fibers called fascicles within skeletal muscle Endomysium - very thin layer of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle fiber 13. The structure of a sarcomere, including the A band, I bands, H zone, Z disc, etc. and how the arrangement of myofilaments inside the sarcomere relate to these features A band (dark), I bands (light), H zone (center of A band), Z disc (boundary of sarcomere) Sarcromeres have an orderly. arrangement of myofilaments Thick filaments contain myosin ○ extend lengths of the A band ○ connnected connected in the middle at the M line Thin filaments contain actin ○ extend across the I band and part way into the A band ○ Z disc anchors the thin filaments MYOFILAMENTS: ○ during contraction, they link the thick and thin filaments together, forming cross bridges ○ crucial for muscle contraction. The thick filaments (myosin) are centrally located, while the thin filaments (actin) extend from the Z discs towards the center of the sarcomere. During muscle contraction, the thin filaments slide past the thick filaments, shortening the sarcomere and thus the muscle fiber. 14. The interior structures of a muscle cell, including the sarcoplasmic reticulum, t tubules, sarcolemma, etc. Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: stores calcium ○ smooth interconnecting tubules that surround each myofibril ○ larger terminal cisterns form channels at the junction of the A band and I band t tubules: transmit action potential ○ When sarcolemma receives signal to contract, the T tubules carry this signa; deep regions of muscle cell ○ synchronises contraction Sarcolemma - muscle cell membrane Terminal Cisternae - stores and releases calcium ions Triad - ensures rapid and coordinated transmission of the action potential from the sarcolemma into the interior muscle fiber 15. The sliding filament model of muscle contraction and be able to describe the steps involved in a skeletal muscle contraction When the nervous system stimulates muscle fibers: Myosin heads on thick filaments bind to actin on the thin filaments and push, sliding the fibers along each other Cross bridges break and reform several times, ratcheting the thin filaments toward the center of the sarcomere Z discs are pulled toward the M line, I bands shorten, H zone disappears, A bands move closer together 16. The ways in which smooth muscle contraction differs from that of skeletal muscle Communication between cells via gap junctions Most contractions are slow and synchronized Can sustain longer contractions Controlled by the autonomic nervous system 17. The difference between isotonic and isometric contractions Isotonic: measured by muscle shortening Concentric contractions: muscle shortens and does work (picking something up) Eccentric contractions: muscle lengthens and generates force (calf muscles as you walk up stairs) Isometric: measured by muscle tension Tension builds to muscles capacity, but neither shortens nor lengthens Muscle is attempting to move a load that is greater than the force of the muscle Occurs when muscles attempt to maintain upright posture to to hold joints stationary 18. The definition of a motor unit Motor Unit: a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates 19. The phases of a muscle twitch and what happens during each Latent Period - first few milliseconds, cross bridges begin to cycle but no muscle tension yet (time between stimulus and contraction) Period of contraction - cross bridges active (10-100 milliseconds) (muscle shortens) Period of relaxation - renters of calcium into the SR, muscle contraction drops to 0 (10-100 milliseconds) (Muscle returns to resting length) 20. The three ways in which a muscle cell can generate ATP and how long the energy from each will last Direct Phosphorylation (15 seconds) Anaerobic Glycolysis Pathway (30-60 seconds) Aerobic Respiration Pathway (lasts hours) 21. What factors affect the strength of a muscle contraction and the range of its motion Number of muscle fibers recruited Size of muscle fibers (larger = more force) Frequency of stimulation Degree of stretch ( stretched beyond 100% of resting length = more force) 22. The difference between prime movers, antagonists, synergists, and fixator muscles Prime mover/agonist - a muscle that has the major responsibility for producing a specific movement (ex; biceps) Antagonist - a muscle that opposes that movement, usually located on the opposite side from the agonist (ex: triceps) Synergist: help prime movers by adding force or reducing unnecessary/undesirable movement (ex: brachialis) Fixator: immobilize a bone or origin so prime mover has a stable base (ex: trapezius) 23. The definition of various types of muscle movements (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, etc.) Flexion- bending movement that decreases Extension - bending movement that the angle of the joint; brings two bones increases angle of the joint; straightening closer together Abduction - movement of a limb away Adduction - movement of a limb toward from the midline (Median) plane, along the body’s midline, along frontal plane frontal plane Supination - Turning backwards Pronation - turning forward Protraction - non angular anterior Retraction - non angular posterior ( (extending the jaw) retracting the jaw) Inversion - turning sole of foot medically Eversion - turning sole of foot laterally Elevation - lifting superiorly (closing the Depression - lowering inferiorly (opening jaw) the jaw) Dorsiflexion - Lifting the foot Plantar flexion - pointing the toe Opposition - touching the thumb to the tips of the other fingers Circumduction - moving a limb in a cone- shaped motion 24. The three different types of levers and how the load, fulcrum and effort are arranged in each First Class Lever - lever -> fulcrum -> effort (raising and lowering your head) Second Class Lever - Fulcrum -> load -> effort (standing on tiptoes) Third Class Levers - load -> effort -> fulcrum (flexing your forearm) 25. The difference between a power/speed lever and a mechanical advantage/disadvantage Power lever - small effort needed; fulcrum is close to the load and effort is applied far from the fulcrum, a large load can be moved a short distance (Mechanical advantage) Speed Lever - load moved rapidly over large distance; load is far from fulcrum and effort is applied close to the fulcrum, effort must be greater than the load to be moved (mechanical disadvantage) 26. How muscles can differ in the arrangement of their fascicles Circular - fascicles arranged in concentric rings Convergent - broad origin, converge toward a single tendon of insertion (triangular) Parallel - fascicles run parallel to the long axis of muscle (strap like) or fuse form, which widen in the middle (spindle-shaped) Pennate - short fascicles that attach obliquely to a central tendon 27. The ways in which skeletal muscles can be named Muscle location (bone or body region; temporalis - temporal bone) Muscle shape (trapezius - trapezoid) Muscle Size (Maximus - largest, brevis - short) Direction of muscle fibers (rectus - straight/parallel to the midline) Number of Origins (biceps - two origins) Location of attachments (sternocleidomastoid - attached to the sternum and the clavicle) Muscle action ( flexor, extensor, etc.)