BIO 1134 Final Exam Study Guide PDF

BIO 1134 Final Exam Study Guide The following items serve as a review for the comprehensive questions on the final exam: 1. What is biology? he scientific study of life, examining the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living organisms 2. What are the characterist...

BIO 1134 Final Exam Study Guide The following items serve as a review for the comprehensive questions on the final exam: 1. What is biology? he scientific study of life, examining the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living organisms 2. What are the characteristics of life shared by all living things?cellular organization, reproduction, growth and development, energy utilization, homeostasis, response to stimuli, and adaptation; meaning they are made up of cells, can reproduce, grow and develop, use energy, maintain a stable internal environment, react to changes in their surroundings, and can adapt to their environment over time. 3. Why is evolution the unifying theme in biology? (How does it explain the unity and diversity of life?) Evolution is considered the unifying theme in biology because it explains both the unity and diversity of life on Earth by proposing that all living organisms descended from a common ancestor, meaning they share fundamental biological mechanisms 4. What are the three domains of life? the three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya - Which is/are prokaryotic? Bacteria and Archaea are considered prokaryotic - Which is/are eukaryotic? while Eukarya is eukaryotic - What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms? Key difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms: Prokaryotic organisms lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotic organisms have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles - What are the four main groups of eukaryotic organisms that were covered this semester? Give examples of each. - Animalia (Animals): Examples include humans, dogs, insects Plantae (Plants): Examples include trees, flowers, grass Fungi (Fungi): Examples include mushrooms, mold, yeast Protista (Protists): Examples include algae, amoeba, paramecium 5. Beginning with the most inclusive (largest and highest level of classification) and working toward the least inclusive (smallest and most specific level of classification), complete this taxonomy scheme: Domain _kingdom____phylum ___class____order____family____genus___ species 6. What are the four major categories of biological macromolecules? carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids - For each category of macromolecule – what are the building blocks and what are the bonds that join the building blocks together called? Carbohydrates: Building blocks are monosaccharides (simple sugars) like glucose, joined by glycosidic bonds; Proteins: Building blocks are amino acids, joined by peptide bonds; Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA): Building blocks are nucleotides, joined by phosphodiester bonds; Lipids: Building blocks are glycerol and fatty acids, joined by ester bonds (though not considered a true polymer like the others due to their diverse structure) - If given a specific macromolecule, be able to identify the category to which it belongs. (For example, what category does glucose belong in? sucrose? starch? glycogen? DNA and RNA? most enzymes? testosterone? cholesterol? olive oil?) Glucose: Carbohydrate (monosaccharide) - Sucrose: Carbohydrate (disaccharide) - Starch: Carbohydrate (polysaccharide) - Glycogen: Carbohydrate (polysaccharide) - DNA and RNA: Nucleic Acids - Most enzymes: Proteins - Testosterone: Lipid (steroid) - Cholesterol: Lipid (steroid) - Olive oil: Lipid (triglyceride) 7. What properties of water are essential for life? The key properties of water essential for life are its polarity (leading to hydrogen bonding), high specific heat capacity, cohesion, adhesion, and its ability to act as a "universal solvent" - How do living things use each property to survive- living organisms utilize these properties for functions like temperature regulation, nutrient transport, maintaining cell structure, and facilitating chemical reactions within the body 8. What is pH? pH stands for "power of hydrogen" and is a measure of how acidic or basic a substance is on a scale from 0 to 14, where 7 is neutral, values below 7 are acidic, and values above 7 are basic - How is pH calculated? pH is calculated using the formula: pH = -log[H+], which represents the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution - What is the pH scale? Neutral: pH of 7 , Acidic: pH less than 7, Basic (alkaline): pH greater than 7 9. What is the most basic, fundamental unit of life that can perform all of the characteristics of living things? Cell 10. What are the major points of the cell theory? all living organisms are composed of one or more cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and all cells come from pre-existing cells through cell division 12. What are some structural and functional differences between plant and animal cells? The primary structural differences between plant and animal cells are that plant cells possess a rigid cell wall, a large central vacuole, and chloroplasts, while animal cells lack these structures 13. What are the functions of cell membranes? Cell membranes primarily function as a barrier, separating the cell's interior from the external environment while selectively allowing certain substances to pass through, acting as a gatekeeper for the cell - What biological macromolecules are found in or around cell membranes? the major biological macromolecules found in cell membranes are phospholipids (lipids) and proteins, with cholesterol also playing a significant role in maintaining membrane fluidity; - What are the major components of cell membranes? the primary components of a cell membrane are a phospholipid bilayer, with embedded and peripheral proteins, creating a selectively permeable barrier 14. How does active transport differ from passive transport?Active transport differs from passive transport because active transport requires energy to move molecules across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient (from low to high concentration), while passive transport does not require energy and molecules move naturally down the concentration gradient (from high to low concentration - What are some examples of active and passive transport? Sodium-potassium pump: This pump actively moves sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell, maintaining the necessary ion balance for nerve impulses. Glucose uptake in the intestine: The absorption of glucose from the gut into the bloodstream requires active transport to move glucose against its concentration gradient.  Proton pump in stomach cells: Secreting hydrogen ions into the stomach lumen to maintain acidity 15. What is diffusion? Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration - Osmosis? is a specific type of diffusion where only water molecules move across a semipermeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration; - Isotonic- a solution where the concentration of solutes outside a cell is equal to the concentration of solutes inside the cell Hypertonic- a solution with a higher concentration of solute than a cell, which causes water to move out of the cell through osmosis. - hypotonic solution- a solution with a lower concentration of solute than another solution, or than a cell. - When a cell is placed in each of these solutions, which way does water move across the plasma membrane? - - If a cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, water will leave the cell, and the cell will shrink. - In an isotonic environment, there is no net water movement, so there is no change in the size of the cell. - When a cell is placed in a hypotonic environment, water will enter the cell, and the cell will swell. - 16. What is endocytosis? the process where a cell takes in substances from outside its membrane by engulfing them with a part of its cell membrane, forming a vesicle to bring the material inside the cell - Exocystosis? the opposite process, where a cell releases substances from within by fusing vesicles containing the material with the cell membrane, expelling the contents to the outside environment. 17. Which organisms are producers? organisms that can make their own food, like plants and algae - consumers? organisms that need to eat other organisms to get their energy, like animals - Why are they called that? they are called this because producers "produce" their own food through photosynthesis, while consumers "consume" other organisms to survive - What’s another name for “producer”? autotroph - Another name for “consumer”? - heterotroph - What is the ultimate energy source for all living things? the Sun 18. What are the major points of the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics? - The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed from one form to another - the Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the entropy (disorder) of a closed system always increases over time, meaning natural processes always move towards a state of greater disorder 19. What is an exergonic reaction? a chemical reaction that releases energy, meaning the products have less free energy than the reactants, - What is an endergonic reaction? is a reaction that absorbs energy, requiring an input of energy to proceed, the products have more free energy than the reactants - What indicates whether a reaction is exergonic or endergonic? The key indicator of whether a reaction is exergonic or endergonic is the change in Gibbs free energy (∆G), where a negative ∆G signifies an exergonic reaction and a positive ∆G indicates an endergonic reaction. 20. What are enzymes? proteins that act as biological catalysts, meaning they significantly speed up chemical reactions within living organisms without being consumed in the process - How do enzymes work? they work by binding to specific molecules called substrates at a designated active site on their structure, facilitating the chemical reaction to occur more efficiently, often by lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction to proceed - What is necessary for proper enzyme function? the correct protein structure (maintained by optimal temperature and pH levels) is crucial, as well as the availability of any necessary cofactors or coenzymes that may be required for the reaction to take place. - how to determine the optimal conditions for an enzyme if given a graph showing enzyme activity at different environmental conditions (temperature, pH, salt concentrations, etc). identify the point on the graph where the enzyme activity is highest, as this represents the optimal temperature, pH, or salt concentration depending on the axis being measured; the optimal condition will be the value on the x-axis corresponding to the peak activity on the y-axis. 21. What is the overall reaction for photosynthesis? The overall reaction for photosynthesis is: 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2. - What are two major parts of photosynthesis? - light-dependent reactions which occur in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplasts, and the Calvin cycle (light-independent reactions) - Where does each take place in a eukaryotic cell? the stroma of chloroplasts 22. What is the overall process for cellular (aerobic) respiration? a process where glucose is broken down in the presence of oxygen to generate energy in the form of ATP - What are the three major parts of cellular (aerobic) respiration? glycolysis (in the cytoplasm), the Krebs cycle (in the mitochondrial matrix), and the electron transport chain (on the inner mitochondrial membrane); 23. What is fermentation? a metabolic process where microorganisms break down organic compounds, like sugars, to produce energy in the absence of oxygen - What are the two major types that we discussed in class? alcoholic fermentation (producing ethanol and carbon dioxide) and lactic acid fermentation (producing lactic acid). 24. What is metabolism? all the chemical reactions occurring within a living organism to maintain life - What is anabolism? the process of building up larger molecules from smaller ones, requiring energy - What is catabolism? the process of breaking down larger molecules into smaller ones, releasing energy that can be used by the organism 25. What are nucleic acids composed of? building blocks called nucleotides, which consist of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group - How does this differ in DNA and RNA? the key difference between DNA and RNA lies in the type of sugar molecule, with DNA containing deoxyribose and RNA containing ribose, and also a slight variation in their nitrogenous bases, where DNA has thymine (T) while RNA has uracil (U) in its place. 26. How does a cell replicate its DNA? (What word is used to describe the process? A cell replicates its DNA through a process called DNA replication; where the double helix of DNA is "unzipped" and each strand serves as a template to create a new complementary strand, resulting in two identical DNA molecules - What enzymes are important? are DNA polymerase (for DNA replication) and RNA polymerase (for transcription, creating RNA from DNA), - What is the directionality of DNA and RNA synthesis?) Both DNA and RNA synthesis occur in the 5' to 3' direction; meaning new nucleotides are always added to the 3' end of the growing strand. 27. What is the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology? a theory stating that genetic information flows only in one direction, from DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to protein 28. What is transcription? the process of copying genetic information from DNA into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule - What is translation? the process of converting the information in mRNA into a protein sequence - Where does each happen in eukaryotes? transcription occurs in the nucleus, and translation happens in the cytoplasm - Where does each happen in prokaryotes? both transcription and translation occur in the cytoplasm as they lack a separate nucleus. 29. What are the phases of the cell cycle (in their proper order)? - G1 (Gap 1) phase, S (Synthesis) phase, G2 (Gap 2) phase, and M (Mitosis) phase  - What happens in each? during G1, the cell grows and prepares for DNA replication, in the S phase, DNA is replicated, in G2, the cell prepares for division, and in the M phase, the cell actually divides through mitosis and cytokinesis. 30. What are the phases of mitosis (in their proper order)? - prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase - What are the major events in each? - during prophase, chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers form; - in metaphase, chromosomes line up at the cell equator; - in anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles; - and in telophase, new nuclear membranes form around the separated chromosomes, essentially reversing prophase events. 31. What are the phases of meiosis (in their proper order)? onsists of two distinct divisions, Meiosis I and Meiosis II, each with the phases prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase - What are the major events in each? - prophase I (where homologous chromosomes pair up and cross over), - metaphase I (homologous chromosomes line up at the equator), - anaphase I (homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles), - and telophase I (two haploid daughter cells form), followed by a similar process in - meiosis II where sister chromatids separate, resulting in four haploid daughter cells; the key event in meiosis is the crossing over that occurs during prophase I, which generates genetic diversity. 32. For what purpose(s) do organisms use mitosis? Organisms use mitosis primarily for growth, development, and repair by creating new cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell, allowing them to replace old or damaged cells and contribute to an organism's overall size increase; in some single-celled organisms, mitosis also serves as a means of asexual reproduction. - What is the purpose of meiosis? The purpose of meiosis is to produce gametes (sex cells like sperm and egg) with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell - What is the purpose of binary fission? to reproduce asexually by dividing a single cell into two identical daughter cells, essentially allowing an organism to quickly create a copy of itself; this is the primary method of reproduction for many prokaryotes like bacteria - Where in the human body would cells be undergoing mitosis? Meiosis? mitosis occurs in most body cells, also called somatic cells, throughout the body, while meiosis only happens in the reproductive organs (testes and ovaries) within the germ cells that produce sperm and eggs respectively 33. What is cytokinesis? the process by which the cytoplasm of a cell divides into two separate daughter cells, essentially completing the cell division process  - How does cytokinesis differ in plants and animals? in plants, a cell plate forms in the middle of the cell to divide the cytoplasm, while in animals, a cleavage furrow pinches the cell membrane inward to separate the daughter cells 34. What is the diploid number of chromosomes in a human somatic cell- In a human somatic cell, the diploid number of chromosomes (2n) is 46 - What is the haploid number- (n) is 23 35. What happens to the number of chromosomes per cell following mitosis? the number of chromosomes per cell remains the same as the parent cell, meaning each daughter cell has the same number of chromosomes as the original cell - What happens to the number of chromosomes per cell following meiosis? the number of chromosomes per cell is reduced by half, meaning each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell 36. What is Down syndrome? a genetic condition caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 - What cellular event (involving the chromosomes during meiosis) causes Down syndrome? which occurs due to a cellular event called "nondisjunction" during meiosis, where chromosomes fail to separate properly, resulting in a gamete (egg or sperm) with an extra chromosome 21, leading to a fertilized egg with three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two 37. What are autosomes? any chromosomes in an organism that are not sex chromosomes - the sex chromosomes? are the specific chromosome pair that determines an organism's sex (like the X and Y chromosomes in humans); in humans, we have 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes 38. How does the Y chromosome determine gender in humans? by containing the SRY gene, which triggers the development of male sexual characteristics when present, essentially overriding the default female development pathway 39. What are Mendel’s two laws of inheritance? What do they mean? Mendel's Law of Segregation states individuals possess two alleles and a parent passes only one allele to his/her offspring. Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment states the inheritance of one pair of factors ( genes ) is independent of the inheritance of the other pair. 40. What is an allele? one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. - What is a phenotype? the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. - What is a genotype? the genetic makeup of an organism  - What does it mean if an organism is homozygous - when it has two identical copies of a gene for a specific trait, meaning it inherited the same allele from both parents, - Heterozygous? means it has two different versions of that gene, inheriting different alleles from each parent - What does it mean to be hybrid? is essentially the same as a heterozygous organism, meaning it has different alleles for a trait, essentially a mix of two different genetic variations. 41 What is the probability that the offspring will be of a certain genotype or phenotype? Punnett square - What inheritance pattern explains the results of this cross? this is typically expressed as a percentage based on the ratio of different genotypes in the offspring generation. - incomplete dominance- a genetic phenomenon where the phenotype of a heterozygote is a blend of the phenotypes of the two homozygotes - Co-dominance- a genetic phenomenon where two different versions of a gene (alleles) are both expressed in an individual, resulting in a combination of traits - autosomal recessiveness- a pattern of inheritance for genetic traits and disorders that occurs when a person inherits two copies of a mutated gene, one from each parent - autosomal dominance- a pattern of inheritance for some genetic disorders and traits - X-linked recessive- a pattern of gene inheritance where a mutated gene on the X chromosome causes a genetic trait or condition to be passed down from parent to child 42. What are the characteristic phenotype and genotype ratios for a monohybrid cross (i.e., when both parents are heterozygous for one gene)? both parents are heterozygous for one gene, the characteristic phenotypic ratio is 3:1 (dominant phenotype to recessive phenotype), and the genotypic ratio is 1:2:1 (homozygous dominant to heterozygous to homozygous recessive) - What is the characteristic phenotype ratio of a dihybrid cross (i.e., when both parents are heterozygous for two genes)? What do the numbers in the ratio represent? dihybrid cross is 9:3:3:1; this means that in the offspring, 9/16 will exhibit the dominant phenotype for both traits, 3/16 will exhibit the dominant phenotype for one trait and the recessive for the other, another 3/16 will exhibit the opposite combination of dominant and recessive traits, and 1/16 will exhibit the recessive phenotype for both traits.