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RESEARCH THEORY Group 2 Jurado, Mary Grace B. Vellila, John Patrick Wabingga, Shaina A.  RESEARCH Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidenc...

RESEARCH THEORY Group 2 Jurado, Mary Grace B. Vellila, John Patrick Wabingga, Shaina A.  RESEARCH Research is "creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge". It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of bias and error.  PHILOSOPHY - The Ancient Greek word “philosophia” which means (philos) 'love' and (sophia) 'wisdom'. - It was coined by Pythagoras and literally means "love of wisdom." - Philosophy is the study of the general and fundamental nature of reality, existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. IMPORTANCE OF PHILOSOPHY IN RESEARCH -Guides our thinking and shapes how we see the world. -Helps us decide what is true and what counts as knowledge. -Everyone has a philosophy, even if they don’t know it. PHILOSOPHICAL IMPACT -Philosophy influences research methods and conclusions. -Helps researchers stay aware of their beliefs and avoid bad assumptions. -Critical for understanding and judging if research is valid. CONTRIBUTION OF PHILOSOPHY TO RESEARCH -Makes us think carefully about what we are studying and how we study it. -Helps us evaluate the quality and trustworthiness of research. -Supports clear, logical thinking in all stages of research. PHILOSOPHY’S ROLE IN RESEARCH METHODS Research methods depend on metaphysics (what exists) and epistemology (how we know). METAPHYSICS AND EPISTEMOLOGY Metaphysics - Concerned with existence, identity, knowledge, time, and space. Idealism: Reality is mental, dependent on the mind; phenomena are ever-changing. Materialism (Reductionism): Only physical entities exist; phenomena are stable and independent of the mind. Epistemology - Theory of knowledge: validation and methods. Empiricism: Knowledge from sensory experience and induction. Rationalism: Knowledge from reasoning and deduction.  Aristotle, a famous empiricist, believed that observation and experience are key to knowledge. Plato, a renowned rationalist, argued that reason alone can provide certain knowledge. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING  INDUCTIVE REASONING – THE EMPIRICIST’S APPROACH Inductive reasoning starts from specific observations or sensory experiences and then develops a general conclusion from them. Example: All giraffes that I have seen have very long necks, (Repeated observation) Therefore I can conclude that all giraffes have long necks. (Conclusion) INDUCTION - A common form of scientific activity where we come to conclusions from our experiences and generalize them into rules or beliefs. It was the basis of the scientific revolution and led to famous theories like Mendel’s genetics and Darwin’s evolution. - To rely on inductive reasoning, it is important to make many observations, repeat them under various circumstances, and ensure that no observations contradict the generalization.  DEDUCTIVE REASONING – THE RATIONALIST’S APPROACH Deductive reasoning begins with general statements (premises) and, through logical argument, comes to a specific conclusion. Example: All living things will eventually die. (General statement – first premise) This animal is a living thing (Inference – second premise) Therefore, this animal will eventually die. (Conclusion)  SYLLOGISM - Is the simplest form of deductive argument. Consists of two premises and a conclusion. The first premise is a general statement, the second premise is a more specific statement inferred from the first premise, and the conclusion logically follows from the two statements. Premises 1 st premises – general statement 2 nd premises – more specific statement inferred from the first premises Conclusion – logically follows from the two statements DEDUCTIVE - Deductive reasoning was first discussed by the Ancient Greeks, particularly Plato. In science, theories are tested through observation and experiment, and if a theory is falsified, it can be totally rejected and replaced with a new one. A hypothesis must be expressed as a statement and be falsifiable, meaning it can be tested and potentially disproved. However, the truth of the conclusions depends on the truth of the premises, and if the premise is incorrect, the conclusion may also be incorrect. HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE REASONING OR SCIENTIFIC METHOD  HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE REASONING OR SCIENTIFIC METHOD - Combination of Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. - Foundation of modern scientific research, commonly called as scientific method. It results in the to-and-fro process of: identification or clarification of a problem; developing a hypothesis (testable theory) inductively from observations; charting their implications by deduction; practical or theoretical testing of the hypothesis; rejecting or refining it in the light of the results. Karl Popper (1902-1992) - formulated the idea of the hypothetico-deductive method.  Complexity of Testing Theories in Real Life * Complexity of Realistic Scientific Theories: - Scientific theories in practice are often complex and made up of several interrelated statements. These statements are not standalone; they usually depend on underlying assumptions and prior theories. Example Scenario: Testing the Theory that Increased CO₂ Leads to Global Warming. Theory: The greenhouse effect is the idea that rising atmospheric CO2 levels will cause global temperatures to rise. The fundamentals of physics and chemistry, including the greenhouse effect, radiative forcing, and heat absorption by greenhouse gases, form the basis of this theory Assumptions: The theory assumes that solar radiation and volcanic activity are constant or well understood, and that the greenhouse effect acts in a consistent manner. Assumptions in Testing Methods: - The methods used to test theories also rely on certain assumptions. These assumptions could be related to the accuracy of measurement tools, the conditions under which experiments are conducted, or the applicability of certain models. Example Scenario: Testing the Theory that Increased CO₂ Leads to Global Warming. Testing Method: Based on present CO2 levels, climate models are used by scientists to forecast future temperatures. A number of assumptions are included in these models, including the precision of CO2 measurements, the longevity of climatic feedback mechanisms (such the ice albedo effect), and the representativeness of historical climate data. Influences: In order to verify the accuracy of data gathering techniques and the dependability of weather stations and satellites, testing may also entail controlled experiments or observational studies, such as the analysis of temperature records.  Implications of Test Results: - When the results of a test do not align with the predictions made by a theory, it may not necessarily mean that the theory itself is incorrect. It could also indicate that the assumptions underlying the theory or the testing methods might be at fault. Example Scenario: Testing the Theory that Increased CO₂ Leads to Global Warming Experimental Conditions: Assume that a laboratory experiment is carried out to detect temperature variations and imitate elevated CO2 levels. Results could not be entirely representative of actual conditions if the laboratory setup fails to fully capture the intricacies of Earth's atmosphere, such as by neglecting to take into consideration the influence of clouds or oceanic heat absorption. Interpreting Data: Scientists may encounter problems when examining historical climate data, such as poor documentation, biases in data gathering, or the impact of other confounding variables like industrial pollution or deforestation. It's possible that mistakes in data interpretation, rather than a problem with the theory, are the cause of non-matching outcomes to the predictions. There are certain assumptions that underlie scientific method that relate to a materialist view of metaphysics and a positivist view of epistemology. These assumptions are: Order – Believing in a structured and predictable universe. - Contributors: Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and Isaac Newton (1643-1727) Example: In physics, the assumption of order is reflected in the study of laws like Newton’s laws of motion, which suggest that objects move in predictable ways based on consistent rules.  External reality – Assuming a shared, objective reality. - Contributor: Auguste Comte (1798-1857) Example: If you and I both observe that the sky is blue, this observation is not just a personal experience but a reflection of a common reality that can be objectively verified by others. Reliability – Trusting our senses and reasoning for accurate information. - Contributor: Karl Popper (1902–1994) Example: When conducting an experiment, scientists rely on their observations and measurements to draw conclusions. For instance, if repeated experiments consistently show that water boils at 100°C under standard atmospheric pressure, scientists trust this result as a reliable fact.  Parsimony – also called as “Occam’s Razor,” preferring simpler explanations over more complex ones. - Contributor: William of Ockham (1287–1347) Example Scenario: You have a leaky faucet in your kitchen and want to determine why it’s leaking. There are a few potential explanations for this issue. Potential Explanations: Explanation 1: The faucet is leaking because the washer inside it is worn out and needs replacing. Explanation 2: The faucet is leaking because there's an issue with the plumbing behind the wall. Explanation 3: The faucet is leaking due to a rare and complex issue with the internal mechanics that is unique to this particular model. Applying Parsimony: Parsimony Principle: According to the principle of parsimony, you should prefer the simplest explanation that requires the fewest assumptions. In this case, Explanation 1 (worn-out washer) is the simplest and most common reason for a leaky faucet. It involves a straightforward fix that doesn’t require assuming complex or unusual issues.  Generality – Applying discovered principles universally across different contexts. - Contributor: John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) Example: The law of gravity is a principle discovered through research that applies universally. Whether on Earth or in space, the principles of gravity are consistent and can be applied to various situations, such as predicting the motion of planets or objects falling on Earth. However, these assumptions are NOT ACCEPTED by the opposite camp in metaphysics and epistemology, idealist and relativist perspectives emphasize human subjectivity and social dimension in facts and meanings. This clash of viewpoints is unlikely to be resolved, as history reveals. POSITIVISM, RELATIVISM, POSTMODERNISM AND CRITICAL REALISM POSITIVISM - The positivist method of conducting scientific research recognizes the existence of discrete, observable, atomistic phenomena. The goal of the scientific method is to present a refined portrayal of reality, disregarding popular ideas, and to expand upon current knowledge by deriving knowledge from sensory experience and comparative analysis. - Auguste Comte introduced positivism to justify sociology's study of human organization, but its widespread acceptance in the 19th and 20th centuries is unlikely to improve in the 21st century. EXAMPLE: Checking if student performance improves when uniforms are worn. This involves collecting data on grades and behavior with and without uniforms. RELATIVISM (ALSO CALLED INTERPRETIVISM, IDEALISM, CONSTRUCTIVISM OR EVEN CONSTRUCTIONISM) - Relativism, based on idealism and humanism, is an alternative research methodology that posits that our perception of the world is shaped by our values, ideas, and prejudices, rather than objectively observing it, and is deeply rooted in society. - Protagoras and the other Sophists (teachers in Ancient Greece), dating back to the 5th century B.C., are considered the founding fathers of relativism in the western world, with their beliefs largely known through their opponents, Plato and Socrates. EXAMPLE: Recognizing that some students and parents support uniforms for discipline, while others oppose them for restricting personal expression. Both views are seen as valid. COMPARISON BETWEEN POSITIVIST AND RELATIVIST APPROACHES COMPARISON BETWEEN POSITIVIST AND RELATIVIST APPROACHES POSTMODERNISM - Postmodernism questions meaning, knowledge, and truth, rejecting Enlightenment meta- narratives and focusing on power and knowledge. It rejects universal truth and knowledge, arguing that science is a construct with ongoing innovation. - French social theorists like Saussure, Barthes, Derrida, Foucault, Baudrillard, and Leotard expanded on this concept. - Postmodernism posits that words are not literal representations of reality, but rather labels for concepts that can change based on context, leading to the deconstruction of texts to uncover hidden contradictions.  - Foucault, a key figure in postmodernism, argued that power institutions shape knowledge and science, often serving their interests. Postmodernism advocates for context-specific explanations rather than universal truths, emphasizing the complexity of human experiences. - There can be no over-arching theories and no universal truths – all is relative EXAMPLE: Analyzing how the dress code reflects current fashion trends or school power dynamics, rather than just focusing on its rules. CRITICAL REALISM - By acknowledging structured reality through careful interpretation and balancing issues of confusion and inaction, critical realism emerged to confront the uncertainty of postmodernism. - Critical reasoning acknowledges a natural order in social events, but interprets it through theory and practice, unlike positivists who link concepts to observable facts. It differs from relativism, which denies general structures. - Critical Realism is a recent philosophical trend in sociology, developed by Roy Bhaskar and expanded by scholars like Archer, Sayer, and Lawson. EXAMPLE: Understanding that the dress code is a real rule but also considering how it affects students differently based on their backgrounds and experiences. METHODS OF ENQUIRY - A COMPARISON  KEY FIGURES KEY FIGURES WHO HAVE INFLUENCED RESEARCH: Plato (427–347 BC) and Aristotle (348–322 BC) - Greek philosopher Plato was a student of Socrates and later became a teacher of Aristotle. He was a student of Plato for twenty years but is famous for rejecting Plato’s theory of forms. They represent contrasting approaches to acquiring knowledge and understanding the world through deductive and inductive thinking, respectively.  John Locke (1632–1704) - an influential Englishphilosopher, made the distinction betweenphysical existence and abstract qualities generated by our perceptions and feelings. René Descartes (1596–1650) - provided the startingpoint for modernphilosophy by using a method of systematic doubt and his famous maxim is “I think,therefore I am.”, or in Latin, the cogito—‘Cogito ergo sum’.  David Hume (1711–1776) – was a Scottish philosopher, made a distinction between systems of ideas that can provide certainty and those that rely on our perceptions, which are not certain. George Berkeley (1685–1753) - an Anglo- Irish philosopher, argued that all thingsthat exist are only mental phenomena and exist by being perceived.  Karl Popper (1902–1994) – was an Austrian– British philosopher, academic and social commentator, formulated a combination of deductive and inductive thinkingin the hypothetic- deductive method, commonly known as the scientific method,which aims to refine theories to get closer to the truth. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) – was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers, held that our minds organizeour experiences to make senseof the world, and facts are not independent of the way we see things and interpret them.  Karl Marx (1818–1883) – German-born philosopher, defined moral and social aspectsof humanity in terms of material forces. Auguste Comte (1789–1857) – French philosopher known as the founder of sociology and of positivism, he maintained that society can be analyzedempirically, and sociallaws and theories are based on psychology and biology.  Max Weber (1864–1920) – German sociologist and political economist, insisted that understanding the values and meanings of subjects withoutmaking judgments was essential, and he coined the term “verstehen” (German for “understanding”) to describe this process. Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) – French sociologist, own system of collectively sharednorms and beliefs, which he called “social facts.”  Michel Foucault (1926–1984) – a French historian and philosopher, arguedthat there was no progress in science, only changingperspectives, as the practice of science is shown to control what is permitted to count as knowledge. He demonstrated how discourse is used to make social regulation and control appear natural. Thomas Kuhn (1922–1995) – was an American historian and philosopher of science, revealed that scientific research cannot be separated from human influences and is subject to social norms. Jacques Derrida (1930–2004) – a French philosopher, stated that there is no external or fixed meaning to text, nor is there a subject who exists prior to languageand particular experiences. He argued that you cannot get outside or beyond the structure, and this approach led to the movement called Deconstruction. REFERENCE Ashcroft, Rachel. (2022, October 28). What Does “I Think, Therefore I Am” Really Mean? Retrieved from https://www.thecollector.com/what-does-I-think-therefore-I-am-mean/ Kalantzis, M., & Cope, B. (2022). New learning: Elements of a science of education (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press/Common Ground Research Networks. Mastin, L. (2009, January). Existence and Consciousness. Retrieved from https://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_metaphysics.html Turner, J. H. (2001). Positivism: Sociological. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (pp. 11827–11831). Pergamon. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/01941-0 Walliman, N. S. R. (2011). Part 2: Research theory. In Research methods: The basics (pp. 15 28). Routledge. Wrenn, C. B. (n.d.). Naturalistic epistemology. In The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved September 13, 2024, from https://iep.utm.edu/ Zhang, T. (2022). Critical Realism: A Critical Evaluation. Social Epistemology, 37(1), 15–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2022.2080127 THANK YOU