Research Methods 1 Course Outline PDF

Research Methods 1  Synopsis course design 11 / 12 lectures (+ 1 Q&A); 7 tutorials Attending lectures is recommended Attending tutorials is mandatory Lectures: overview of methodological principles in psychology and pedagogy Tutorials: application of these principles in research pr...

Research Methods 1  Synopsis course design 11 / 12 lectures (+ 1 Q&A); 7 tutorials Attending lectures is recommended Attending tutorials is mandatory Lectures: overview of methodological principles in psychology and pedagogy Tutorials: application of these principles in research project Multiple choice exam (lectures & books): 60% Oral exam (tutorials): 40% (Check introduction video clip on canvas)  Recommended study strategy Prepare for the lecture by reading the part of the book / syllabus that will be discussed Attend the lecture Test yourself using “inquizitives” provided by Morling (Canvas  modules  inquizitives) For the tutorials: prepare home assignments Toward the end: test yourself with the sample exam that will be uploaded on canvas  Lectures & literature Week Lecture Book (Morling) Syllabus (Los) 36 L1, L2 Ch. 1-2 37 L3, L4 Ch. 3, Ch. 5-6 38 L5, L6 Ch. 8-11 39 L7, L8 Ch. 7, 12 Ch. 1-2 40 L9, L10 Ch. 4; Ch. 13 Ch. 3-4 41 L11, L12 Ch. 14; Ch. 5 42 Q&A 43 Exam Overview: three major topics Philosophy of science Lectures What is science? History and foundations 1,2 Scientific Reasoning Loosely based on Morling, Ch. 1 and 2 Behavioral Methods: the “technical part” Different methods support different claims Lectures 3 - 12 Many details Morling Ch. 3 - 14 Lectures Basics of statistics Which conclusions do my data allow? 7 - 12 Los (syllabus) Lecture 1: What is Science? What is scientific knowledge? In what way does scientific knowledge differ from knowledge obtained by other methods? A short history of science Contributing to science  Division of scientific disciplines Arts: study facets of culture e.g., history, literature, law, philosophy “Bachelor of Arts” BA Sciences: “to understand the world” Natural sciences. Study of the material universe Social sciences. Study people and societies Formal sciences. Study logic and mathematics  “ Bachelor of Science” BSc How well do formal sciences fit this classification?  Empirical versus formal 1. Venus is closer to the Sun than the Earth 2. Mars is closer to the Sun than Venus 3. Mars is closer to the Sun than the Earth Mars Venus Earth  Empirical versus formal 1. Venus is closer to the Sun than the Earth 2. Mars is closer to the Sun than Venus 3. Mars is closer to the Sun than the Earth Statement 2 is empirically incorrect. But suppose that Statements 1 and 2 are both true, then Statement 3 must also be true: formally correct argument. In science both components are crucial: Empirical: collection of new data (facts) Formal: correct reasoning based on data  Sciences Examples – Physics: general characteristics of matter and energy – Biology: living beings and life forms – Medicine: influence of disease on human functioning – Psychology: study of behavior and mind All – these disciplines use of the Pedagogy: influence education on the scientific growing method child method? What is the scientific  Sources of knowledge Scientifically unacceptable knowledge based on Tenacity: uncorrectable beliefs Intuition: gut feeling / revelation Authority: respected Scientifically critical source knowledge based on Empiricism: systematic observation Rationalism: formally correct reasoning  Scientific knowledge Scientific knowledge results from a continuous interplay between empirical observation and rational thinking (formally correct reasoning). This view will be explored in detail in Lecture 2 Now: where does our current view of science come from? A short history of science Why? To know in which tradition we stand To understand why we should cherish science Focus on physics and astronomy Long history Provides a standard model for scientific development We omit technical details A short history of science 1600 1700 Now Old-fashioned Modern Knowledge based Knowledge based on on authority scientific method The Bible; John Locke; Isaac Aristotle Newton Wootton, 2015 A short history of science A typical European intellectual around 1600 believes: in witchcraft, magic, werewolves, unicorns, and astrology a murdered body bleeds in the presence of its murderer the shape, color and texture of a plant can be a clue to how it will work as a medicine base metal can be turned into gold spontaneous generation of mice in piles of straw rainbow is a sign of God and comets predict evil the earth is at the center of our solar system Aristotle (4th century BCE) was the greatest scientist Wootton, 2015 ever A short history of science A typical European intellectual around 1700 does not believe any of the things just mentioned (witchcraft, unicorns, etc.) He does believe the future cannot be predicted the rainbow is produced by refracted light the sun is in the middle of our solar system science will change the world Ideas of moderns (Locke, Newton) are superior to those of ancient counterparts Wootton, 2015  A short history of science 1600 1700 Now Old-fashioned Modern Knowledge based Knowledge based on on authority scientific method The Bible; John Locke; Isaac Aristotle Newton To put things in context, let’s go back in time even further  Raphael: The school of Athens Plato (ca. 427 – 347 v Chr.) - Ideeënleer (aangeboren kennis) - Waarnemingen moeten worden gewantrouwd - Nieuwe kennis door redeneren vanuit de ideeën - Toepassingsgebieden: Logica en Geometrie  Sterk rationalistisch; geen empirisme  Plato (~427 – 347 BC) Theory of Ideas (innate knowledge) Observations must be mistrusted New knowledge by reasoning from ideas Areas of application: logic and geometry  Strong rationalism; no empiricism  Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) Knowledge comes from ideas, but also from observations Deduction: deduce new knowledge from certain truths Induction: obtain new knowledge from observations  Example Deduction 1. Venus is closer to the Sun than the Earth 2. The Earth is closer to the Sun than Mars 3. Venus is closer to the Sun than Mars If the first two statements are correct (they are in this case), Statement 3 must be correct (there is no other option).  Example Induction Observation 1: I see a white swan Observation 2: I see a white swan …………… Observation 10000: I see a white swan --------------------------------------------------- All swans are white But.... Observation 10001: I see a black swan  My inductive generalization turned out to be wrong…  Aristotle (384 – 322 BC) Knowledge comes from ideas, but also from observations Deduction: deduce new knowledge from certain truths Induction: obtain new knowledge from observations Deduction leads to new certain knowledge; Inductive generalizations could be wrong. Explain natural phenomena Strong rationalism Some empiricism is permissible  Hellenism Alexander the Great (356 - 323 B.C.), conquered many areas in Asia and Egypt Hellenism: spread of Greek culture in the conquered areas  Golden age of Alexandria A new center of science was established in Alexandria. Hallmarks Focus on astronomy and geography Careful observations No focus on explanations  Strong empiricism  Limited rationalism  Geocentric solar system Claudius Ptolemy (~100 - ~170 A.D.): Almagest Sun and planets orbit around the earth in perfect circles. Observed orbits of the planets were inconsistent with this model  epicycles (small orbits). The basic principles of this geocentric solar system were not questioned. No alternative explanations were considered.  Islamic civilization After its establishment by Mohammed (~570 - 632), Islamic civilization spread out across many areas of the Mediterranean  Islamic civilization Golden Age ~700 – 1000 A.D. Transplanting and enrichment of Athenian and Alexandrian knowledge. New contributions: positional numeral system, and number zero (al-Khwarizmi, ~780 – 845)  Algebra  European Medieval Period Early Medieval Period: Knowledge based on the Bible Late Medieval Period: rediscovery of Aristotle Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274): reconciliation of contradictions between Aristotle and Christian doctrine. Incomparable with current scientific thinking  Scientific revolution Around 1600 Strong revaluation of natural philosophy ("Athens") Importance of observation ("Alexandria") Mathematization of reality (algebra) Supported by technological developments Improved observation by telescope and microscope Invention of book printing  Scientific revolution Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543)  heliocentric solar system Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) - Experimentation (systematic manipulation) - Accurate observations - Mathematization  Galileo Galilei Experiments on gravitational acceleration Systematic manipulation Accurate observation Objects of different mass (weight) fall down equally fast. 2000-year-old Aristotelian physics shattered in a matter of seconds. https://www.bekijkdezevideo.nl/video/2968/kijk-wat-er-gebeurd-als-je-een-bowlingbal-en-een-veer-vanuit-de-lucht-vallen  Galileo Galilei Experiments on gravitational acceleration Systematic manipulation Accurate observation Mathematization s = ½·g·t2 https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/phy03.sci.phys.mfw.galileoplane/galileos-inclined-plane/  Scientific revolution Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543)  heliocentric solar system Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) - Experimentation (systematic manipulation) - Accurate observation - Mathematization Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630): orbit of planets around the sun is elliptical Completion of the revolution Principia (1687) by Newton (1643 – 1727) Based on accurate astronomical observations and previous insights (Copernicus, Kepler, Galilei). Describes a formal theory which fits all observations. Theory goes beyond observation  World of ideas “behind” the observation The Principia silenced critics. The scientific revolution was completed.  What has changed? “Athens” Primarily theoretical, not observational Problem: which theory is the best? “Alexandria” Primarily observational, not theoretical Problem: what do we learn from observations? Modern Science Theories are tested by observations Self-correcting: weak theories disappear; strong theories remain. Modern Science predicts Theory Data tests  Contributing to science How to contribute to science? Select a topic of interest Study relevant literature: search in data bases Formulate a research question Choose an adequate method Carry out research Analyze the outcomes (data) Report findings at a conference or in a publication Seems boring….!? The passion of the scientist Upon discovering the special theory or relativity in 1905 (when he worked in the patent office in Bern) “Besso, Ich hab es gefunden!”  E = mc2 Albert Einstein (1879 - 1955) Nobel prize, 1921 The passion of the scientist Loewi on his discovery of acetylcholine (“vagus stuff”) "The night before Easter Sunday, I woke, turned on the light and jotted down a few notes on a tiny slip of paper. Then I fell asleep again. It occurred to me at six o'clock in the morning that during the night I had written down something most important, but I was unable to decipher the scrawl. Otto Loewi The next night at three o'clock, the idea (1873 - 1961) returned. It was the design of an experiment to Nobel prize determine whether or not the hypothesis of 1936 chemical transmission that I had uttered seventeen years ago was correct. I got up immediately went to the laboratory and performed the simple experiment."  Contributing to science How to contribute to science? Select a topic of interest Study relevant literature: search in data bases Formulate a research question Devise an adequate method Carry out research Analyze the outcomes (data) Report findings at a conference or in a publication Exciting when you are passionate about your topic  Conference visit What do we do at a conference? Learn about work of colleagues and present your own work - oral presentation - poster session  Conference visit What do we do at a conference? Learn about work of colleagues and present your own work - oral presentation - poster session Interact with colleagues - diner, social events, bar Start new collaborations  Scientific Publications A publication is the only official scientific source Books (not very common) Review articles (overview of the literature) Research report (most common) Scientific articles appear in peer reviewed journals  Peer review process 1. Researcher submits a manuscript (research report or review) to a suitable journal. 2. The editor asks a number of specialists on the topic to review the manuscript (or rejects immediately). 3. The editors decides based on the review reports: - immediate rejection - rejection with invitation to resubmit after revision - accept conditional on minor revision - immediate acceptance  Peer review process A typical action letter from the editor (my thoughts in bold) Dear Dr. Los, […] The reviewers and I agree that this manuscript has many virtues. It is beautifully written and carefully prepared. The work is rigorous, and I very much admire the combination of behavioural and ERP data […]. [Yes!] I therefore believe this line of investigation has the potential to be developed into a JEP:G contribution [Oohh!?]. Unfortunately, however, I do not believe the current version meets criteria for this journal, for the reasons summarized below. [Gmmppfff!….]  Peer review process 1. Researcher submits a manuscript (research report or review) to a suitable journal. 2. The editor asks a number of specialists on the topic to review the manuscript (or rejects immediately). 3. The editors decides based on the review reports: - immediate rejection - rejection with invitation to resubmit after revision - accept conditional on minor revision - immediate acceptance 4. The author revises and resubmits, after which the cycle repeats.  Scientific Publications A publication is the only official scientific source Books (not very common) Review articles (overview of the literature) Research report (most common) Scientific articles appear in peer reviewed journals improves the contribution safeguards a minimum standard  Summary Science does not accept evidence based on tenacity, intuition, or authority Earlier traditions emphasized either rationalism (Athens) or empiricism (Alexandria) Modern science (since the scientific revolution): interplay between rationalism and empiricism: theory tested by data. Scientists report their work at conferences or publish their work in peer reviewed journals. Only a peer-reviewed report counts as an official scientific source.