Glossary Of Psychology Terms PDF

GLOSSARY Accommodation the process of changing Assimilation the process of fitting new for these basic emotions; social and cul- one’s understanding of the world to ac- ideas into a preexisting...

GLOSSARY Accommodation the process of changing Assimilation the process of fitting new for these basic emotions; social and cul- one’s understanding of the world to ac- ideas into a preexisting understanding of tural learning then influences how they commodate ideas that conflict with exist- the world. are used in life. ing concepts. Attachment the special bond that de- Behavioral inhibition an aspect of tem- Acculturation the process by which peo- velops between the infant and his or her perament where a child shows signs of ple adopt a different cultural system. primary caregiver and provides the in- wariness, discomfort, or distress when fant with emotional security. The quality confronted with novel, challenging, or  he process of individual change and ad- T of attachment has lifelong effects on our unfamiliar situations. Also known as aptation as a result of continuous contact relationships with loved ones. fearfulness or shyness. with a new, distinct, or different culture. Attention the focusing of our limited ca- Beliefs a proposition that is regarded as Acquiescence bias the tendency to pacities of consciousness on a particular true. People of different cultures have dif- agree rather than disagree with items on set of stimuli, more of whose features are ferent beliefs. questionnaires. noted and processed in more depth than Better than average effect (also known as Affect feelings, or subjective experience. is true of nonfocal stimuli. the false uniqueness effect) the tendency Affective commitment the level of per- Attitudes evaluations of objects occur- for individuals to underestimate the com- sonal feelings associated with one’s rela- ring in ongoing thoughts about the ob- monality of desirable traits and to overes- tionship to an organization. jects, or stored in memory. timate their uniqueness. Aggression any act or behavior that Attributions Beliefs and inferences about Bias differences that do not have exactly intentionally hurts another person, either the causes of events and self and other the same meaning within and across cul- physically or psychologically. behaviors. tures; a lack of equivalence. Allocentrism refers to collectivism on Authoritarian parent a style of parenting Biomedical model a model of health that the individual-level. On the cultural in which the parent expects unquestioned views disease as resulting from a specific, level, collectivism refers to how a culture obedience and views the child as needing identifiable cause such as a pathogen functions. Allocentrism refers to how to be controlled. (an infectious agent such as a virus or individuals may act in accordance with Authoritative parent a style of parenting bacteria), a genetic or developmental collectivistic cultural frameworks. that is viewed as firm, fair, and reason- abnormality (such as being born with a Ambivalent attachment a style of at- able. This style is seen as promoting mutated gene), or physical insult (such as tachment in which children are uncertain psychologically healthy, competent, in- being exposed to a carcinogen—a cancer- in their response to their caregiver , go- dependent children who are cooperative producing agent). ing back and forth between seeking and and at ease in social situations. Biopsychosocial model a model of shunning the caregiver. Autostereotypes stereotypes about your health that views disease as resulting own group. from biological, psychological, and social Analytic perception context-independent factors. perceptual processes that focuses on a Avoidant attachment a style of at- salient object independently from the tachment in which children shun their Biosocial model a model that suggests context in which it is embedded. caregiver. that biological differences between the sexes interact with the environment to Androgyny a gender identity that in- Back translation a technique of trans- produce culture-specific sex roles that are volves endorsement of both male and lating research protocols that involves adaptations to the environment. female characteristics. taking the protocol as it was developed in one language, translating it into the Blind spot a spot in our visual field Animism the belief that all things, in- target language, and having someone where the optic nerve goes through the cluding inanimate objects, are alive. else translate it back to the original. If the layer of receptor cells on its way back to- Appraisal the process by which people ward the brain, creating a lack of sensory back-translated version is the same as the evaluate the events, situations, or occur- receptors in the eye at that location. original, they are generally considered rences that lead to their having emotions. Carpentered world theory a theory of equivalent. If it is not, the procedure is Arable land the type of land that can repeated until the back-translated version perception that suggests that people (at sustain life by food production of some is the same as the original. least most Americans) are used to seeing sort. Basic emotions a small set of emotion things that are rectangular in shape, and Arranged marriages a marriage in which categories, or families of emotions, that thus unconsciously expect things to have someone other than the couple being are considered to be universal to all hu- square corners. married makes the decision about who mans, biologically based and genetically Categorization the process by which will be wed. Oftentimes, this can be the coded, and evolutionarily based. Hu- objects are grouped or classified together parents of the individuals being wed. mans come into the world with programs based on their perceived similarities. 402 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChap Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions 48951_glos_ptg01_402-410.indd 402 1/6/16  Glossary  403 Centration the tendency to focus on a Conformity yielding to real or imagined Cultural attribution fallacies a mis- single aspect of a problem. social pressure. taken interpretation in cross-cultural Channels the specific sensory modalities Conservation an awareness that physical comparison studies. Cultural attribution by which signals are sent and messages quantities remain the same even when fallacies occur when researchers infer are retrieved. they change shape or appearance. that ­something cultural produced the differences they observed in their study, Code frame switching the process by Contact hypothesis the proposition that despite the fact that they may not be which bilinguals switch between one cul- contact between groups is especially ef- empirically justified in doing so because tural meaning system and another when fective in reducing prejudice. they did not actually measure those cul- switching languages. Context variables variables that tural factors. Cofigurative culture a culture in which ­operationalize aspects of culture that Cultural concepts of distress the shared change occurs rapidly. Both adults and ­researchers believe produce differences in ways in which cultural groups or com- peers socialize young people. Young peo- psychological variables. These variables are munities experience, express, and inter- ple may have to turn to one another for ad- actually measured in unpackaging studies. pret distress. vice and information in this type of culture. Contextual factors any variable that can explain, partly or fully, observed cross- Cultural decoding rules these are rules Cognition a term denoting all mental cultural differences. These may involve that people of all cultures learn from processes we use to transform sensory characteristics of the participants (such as early childhood about how to decode input into knowledge. socioeconomic status, education, and age) or decipher speech and behavior. They Cognitive behavioral therapy interven- form the basis for the cultural filters we or their cultures (such as economic devel- tions that emphasize the development have in interpreting the world, and are opment and religious institutions). of strategies for teaching cognitive skills. associated with implicit (and sometimes Underlying these types of therapy is an Conventional morality the second stage explicit) judgments of appropriateness, assumption that by changing our think- of Kohlberg’s theory of moral develop- goodness, socialization, or right-wrong. ing we can change our behaviors, and ment, emphasizing conformity to rules that are defined by others’ approval or Cultural display rules culturally vice versa. society’s rules. ­prescribed rules that govern how uni- Cognitive development a specialty versal emotions can be expressed. These in psychology that studies how think- Cooperation people’s ability to work rules center on the appropriateness of ing skills develop over time. One major together toward common goals. displaying emotion, depending on so- theory of cognitive development is that Correspondence bias see Fundamental cial circumstances. Learned by people of Piaget. Attribution Error. early in their lives, they dictate how the Collective control a type of control in Counterfactual thinking hypothetical universal emotional expressions should which one attempts to control the envi- beliefs about the past that could have be modified according to the social ronment as a member of a group, and the occurred in order to avoid or change a situation. By adulthood, these rules are group serves as the agent of control. negative outcome. quite automatic, having been very well Collective identity a form of identity Cross-cultural comparisons a study that practiced. that refers to our recognition that we be- compares two or more cultures on some Cultural explanations of distress what long to social categories, such as occupa- psychological variable of interest, often communities and cultural groups believe tion, religion, or culture. with the hypothesis that one culture will is the cause of the distress, symptoms, or Collective intelligence the general abil- have significantly higher scores on the illness. ity of a group to perform a wide variety variable than the other(s). Cultural fit hypothesis the proposition of tasks. Cross-cultural research a research meth- that immigrants and sojourners with odology that tests the cultural parameters characteristics that match their host cul- Collective threat the fear that an ingroup of psychological knowledge. Tradition- tures will adjust better than those with member’s behavior can reinforce nega- ally, it involves research on human less match. tive stereotypes about one’s group. behavior that compares psychological Compliance yielding to social pressure Cultural identity this refers to individu- processes between two or more cultures. in one’s public behavior, even though als’ psychological membership in a dis- In this book, we also incorporate knowl- one’s private beliefs may not have tinct culture. edge contrasting human cultures versus changed. nonhuman animal cultures. This ap- Cultural idioms of distress ways that Concept a mental category we use to proach is primarily concerned with test- communities and cultural groups com- classify events, objects, situations, behav- ing the possible limitations of knowledge municate and express their distressing iors, or even people with respect to what gleaned from one culture by studying thoughts, behaviors, and emotions. we perceive as common properties. people of different cultures. Cultural neuroscience an emerging Conceptual bias the degree to which Cross-cultural validation study a study research field that combines recent ad- a theory or set of hypotheses being that examines whether a measure of a vances in neuroscience with principles compared across cultures are equiva- psychological construct that was origi- of cultural psychology and population lent—that is, whether they have the same nally generated in a single culture is ap- genetics to understand the dynamic rela- meaning and relevance in all the cultures plicable, meaningful, and thus equivalent tions between culture, behavior, mind, being compared. in another culture. brain, and genes. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChap Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions 48951_glos_ptg01_402-410.indd 403 1/6/16  404  Glossary Cultural psychology a subdiscipline Decoding rules rules that govern the Egocentrism the inability to step into within psychology that examines the interpretation and perception of emo- another’s shoes and understand the other cultural foundations of psychological tion. These are culturally dependent rules person’s point of view. processes and human behavior. It in- learned early in life that govern how Emblems nonverbal gestures that carry cludes theoretical and methodological emotional expressions are perceived, meaning, like a phrase or sentence. frameworks that posit an important role recognized, interpreted, evaluated, and Emics aspects of life that appear to differ for culture and its influence on mental acted on. across cultures; truths or principles that processes behavior, and vice versa. Developmental contextualism a contem- are culture-specific. Cultural reaffirmation effect the ampli- porary theoretical perspective proposing fied endorsement of home cultural values that the multiple levels of a developing Emotion antecedents the events or situa- by bicultural individuals. child—ranging from the inner biological, tions that elicit or trigger an emotion. Cultural relativism a viewpoint that psychological, social relational, and so- Emotion response system coherence the suggests that psychological disorders can ciocultural—are inextricably intertwined idea that the various response compo- only be understood in the cultural frame- and function as an integrated system. De- nents of an emotion—facial expressions, work within which they occur. velopmental contextualism stresses that voice, physiological reactions, move- it is the relation between these changing ments, etc.—are related to each other Cultural syndromes patterns of symp- in a coordinated fashion that prepares multiple levels that constitutes human toms that tend to cluster together for individuals to do something vis-à-vis the development. individuals in specific cultural groups, emotion aroused. communities, or contexts. Deviation from temperate climate the degree to which the average temperature Emotional complexity the idea that posi- Cultural worldviews culturally specific tive and negative emotions can co-occur of a given region will differ from what belief systems about the world. They and be experienced simultaneously. is considered to be the relatively “easi- contain attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and est” temperature to live in, which is 22°C Emotions transient, neurophysiologi- values about the world. People have (about 72°F). cal reactions to events that have conse- worldviews because of evolved, complex cognition; thus, having a worldview is a Dialectical thinking the tendency to quences for our welfare, and require an universal psychological process. The spe- accept what seem to be contradictions in immediate behavioral response. They cific content of worldviews, however, is thought or beliefs. include feelings, but also physiological specific to and different for each culture. Difficult temperament a type of temper- reactions, expressive behaviors, behavio- ament that is characterized by an intense, ral intentions, and cognitive changes. Culture a unique meaning and informa- tion system, shared by a group and trans- irregular, withdrawing style that is gener- Encoding the process by which people mitted across generations, that allows the ally marked by negative moods. select, consciously or unconsciously, group to meet basic needs of survival, Direct control a type of control in which a particular modality and method by pursue happiness and well-being, and the self acts as an agent, and individuals which to create and send a message to derive meaning from life. feel themselves to be more self-efficacious someone else. Culture shock the disorientation, anxi- when their agency is made explicit, Enculturation the process by which in- ety, confusion, doubt, distress, or nerv- leading to greater feelings of autonomy dividuals learn and adopt the ways and ousness that occurs when a person is and efficacy. Direct control may be the manners of their specific culture. confronted with and needs to deal with a preferred mode of behavior in cultural Endowment effect this refers to the new and different culture. contexts that promote independence or tendency for owners and potential autonomy, such as in the United States. sellers of goods and products to value Cultures of honor cultures in which norms place a strong emphasis on status Discrimination the unfair treatment of those products more than potential and reputation. others based on their group membership. ­buyers do. Culture-specific a psychological process Disease a malfunctioning or maladapta- Episodic memory the recollection of spe- that is considered to be true for some peo- tion of biologic and psychophysiologic cific events that took place at a particular ple of some cultures but not for others. processes in the individual. time and place in the past. Cyberbullying bullying through elec- Dispositional attributions attributions Equality refers to whether the demo- tronic means, for example, using the Inter- about people’s internal characteristics, graphic characteristics of individuals net, social media, or sending text messages. traits, or personality. such as age or seniority in the organiza- Distributive justice fairness regarding tion are considered primarily in making Decenter the concept underlying the the distribution of resources, such as pay, organizational decisions. procedure of back translation that in- volves eliminating any culture-specific the corner office, or perks. Equity refers to whether one’s contribu- concepts of the original language or Easy temperament a type of tempera- tions and efforts are considered in mak- translating them equivalently into the ment that is defined by a very regular, ing organizational decisions. target language. adaptable, mildly intense style of behav- Equivalence a state or condition of Decoding the process by which a person ior that is positive and responsive. similarity in conceptual meaning and receives signals from an encoder and Ecological (cultural) level studies a empirical method between cultures that translates these signals into meaningful study in which countries or cultures, not allows comparisons to be meaningful; a messages. individuals, are the unit of analysis. lack of bias. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChap Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions 48951_glos_ptg01_402-410.indd 404 1/6/16  Glossary  405 Ethic of autonomy moral reasoning of items on a questionnaire are answered Goodness of fit how well a child’s tem- that emphasizes individual rights and in similar ways because they are assess- perament fits into the expectations and justice. Individual choices and freedoms ing the same, single underlying psycho- values of the parents, environment, and are important to the extent that they do logical construct (or trait). By interpreting culture. not harm others and others’ choices and the groupings underlying the items, Group entitativity the belief that groups freedoms. therefore, researchers make inferences are like people in that they have inten- Ethic of community moral reasoning about the underlying traits that are being tions and the ability to plan actions. that emphasizes interpersonal relation- measured. Groupthink a collective pattern of think- ships and community. One’s duties, ob- Foreign language effect a temporary de- ing that hinders effective group decisions. ligations, and roles within the group are cline in the thinking ability of people who highlighted. are using a foreign language in which Haptics the use of touch in interpersonal they are less proficient than their native interactions. Ethic of divinity moral reasoning that emphasizes the centrality of religious be- tongue. Health disparities differences in health liefs and spirituality. Foreign language processing difficul- outcomes by groups such as between ties problems associated with learn- males and females, African Americans Ethnic identity individuals’ psycho- and European Americans, and people of logical membership in a distinct ethnic ing a foreign language, such as taking more time to respond and experiencing lower and higher socioeconomic status group. (SES). cognitive difficulties while processing Ethnocentrism the tendency to view information. Heterostereotypes stereotypes about the world through one’s own cultural other groups. filters. Front-horizontal foreshortening theory a theory of perception that suggests that High-context cultures cultures that Etics aspects of life that appear to be con- we interpret vertical lines as horizontal promote communication in which many sistent across different cultures; universal lines extending into the distance. Be- messages are conveyed indirectly in or pancultural truths or principles. cause we interpret the vertical line in the context rather than directly in verbal Everyday cognition an area of study that horizontal–vertical illusion as extending language. examines cognitive skills and abilities away from us, we see it as longer. Hindsight bias the process in which that are used in everyday functioning Fundamental attribution error a ten- individuals adjust their memory for that appear to develop without formal dency to explain the behaviors of others something after they find out the true education, but from performing daily using internal attributions but to explain outcome. tasks of living and working. one’s own behaviors using external attri- Holistic health a perspective on health Experiments studies in which re- butions; also known as correspondence that considers the physical, social, envi- searchers create conditions to establish bias. ronmental and sometimes spiritual needs cause–effect relationships. Participants Gender the behaviors or patterns of of the individual. are generally assigned randomly to par- activities a society or culture deems ap- ticipate in the conditions, and researchers Holistic perception context-dependent propriate for men and women. These perceptual processes that focus on the then compare results across conditions. behavioral patterns may or may not be relationships between objects and their Explicit prejudice prejudice that is ver- related to sex and sex roles, although they contexts. balized and thus made public. often are. Homeostasis maintaining steady, stable Exploratory studies studies designed to Gender identity the degree to which a functioning in our bodies when there are examine the existence of cross-cultural person has awareness of or recognition changes in the environment. similarities or differences. These are gen- that he or she has adopted a particular erally simple, quasi-experimental designs gender role. Honorific speech speech styles in certain comparing two or more cultures on a languages that denote status differences Gender role the degree to which a per- among interactants. psychological variable. son adopts the gender-specific behaviors External attributions attributions that ascribed by his or her culture. Hypercognition relatively greater locate the cause of behavior outside a amounts and forms of knowledge, aware- Gender role ideology judgments about person, such as other people, nature, or ness, and thought about something that what gender roles in a particular culture acts of God; these are also known as situ- go beyond the usual. This term was ought to be. ational dispositions. coined by Levy to refer to cultures that Gender stereotype the psychological or create (hypercognize) many words to Extreme response bias the tendency to behavioral characteristics typically asso- differentiate many different emotional use the ends of a scale regardless of item ciated with men and women. states. content. Gender stratification hypothesis the Hypocognition relatively fewer amounts Face the public appearance or image of idea that gender differences are related to and forms of knowledge, awareness, and a person. cultural variations in opportunity struc- thought about something compared to Factor analysis a statistical technique tures for girls and women. the usual. This term was coined by Levy that allows researchers to group items on Gestures movements of the body, usu- to refer to cultures that lack (hypocog- a questionnaire. The theoretical model ally the hands, that are generally reflec- nize) words to differentiate emotional underlying factor analysis is that groups tive of thought or feeling. states. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChap Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions 48951_glos_ptg01_402-410.indd 405 1/6/16  406  Glossary Hypothesis-testing studies studies de- completed by individuals. They are often related to each other, and give consistent signed to test why cultural differences used as context variables to ensure that responses. exist. They go beyond simple quasi- samples in different cultures actually har- Intracultural communication commu- experimental designs by either including bor the cultural characteristics thought to nication that occurs among people of the context variables or by using experiments. differentiate them. same cultural background. Identity the way individuals understand Infant mortality the number of infant Irreversibility the inability to imagine themselves and are recognized by others. deaths (one year of age or younger) per “undoing” a process. Our perceived roles in life, aggregate role 1,000 live births. Leadership the “process of influence and life experiences, narratives, values, Infrahumanization the belief that others between a leader and followers to attain and motives. lack human qualities. group, organizational, or societal goals” Identity denial when an individual is Ingroups a category of individuals peo- (Hollander, 1985). not recognized as a member of a group to ple of all cultures create. Ingroup mem- Level-oriented studies studies that ex- which he or she identifies. bers generally have a history of shared amine cultural differences in mean levels Idiocentrism refers to individualism on experiences and an anticipated future of variables. the individual level. On the cultural level, that produces a sense of intimacy, famili- Lexicon the words contained in a lan- individualism refers to a how a culture arity, and trust. guage, the vocabulary. functions. Idiocentrism refers to how Ingroup advantage the hypothesis that individuals may act in accordance with Life expectancy average number of years individuals can recognize emotions individualistic cultural frameworks. a person is expected to live from birth. expressed by members of their own Illness personal, interpersonal, and cul- culture relatively better than of those Linguistic bias refers to the degree of tural reactions to disease or discomfort. from a different culture. semantic equivalence between protocols (instruments, instructions, question- Immigrant paradox despite the many Ingroup derogation negative attitudes naires, etc.) used in a cross-cultural com- challenges of adapting and adjusting to or beliefs about one’s own ingroup. parison study. a new country, immigrants tend to show Ingroup relationships relationships better physical health compared to non- Linkage studies studies that attempt to characterized by some degree of familiar- immigrants, and, with further assimila- ity, intimacy, and trust. We feel close to measure an aspect of culture theoreti- tion, further negative health outcomes. people around us we consider to be in cally hypothesized to produce cultural differences and then empirically link that Implicit prejudice prejudicial attitudes, our ingroup. Self-ingroup relationships measured aspect of culture with the de- values, or beliefs that are unspoken develop through bonds that tie the in- group together through common friend- pendent variable of interest. and perhaps even outside conscious awareness. ship or relationships or goals. Locus of control people’s attributions of control over their behaviors and Independent construal of self a sense Institutional discrimination dis- crimination that occurs on the level of relationships as internal or external to of self that views the self as a bounded a large group, society, organization, or themselves. People with an internal locus entity, clearly separated from relevant of control see their behavior and relation- others. institution. ships with others as dependent on their Indigenous cultural studies studies that Intercultural adaptation how people own behavior. People with an external use rich, complex, and in-depth descrip- change their behaviors or ways of think- ­locus of control see their behavior and tions of cultures and cultural differences ing in a new cultural environment. relationships as contingent on forces to predict and test for differences in a Intercultural adjustment the subjective ­outside themselves and beyond their psychological variable. experiences people have as they adapt control. Indigenous healing helping beliefs and their behaviors and thinking. Low-context cultures cultures that pro- practices that originate within a given Intercultural communication the ex- mote direct communication in which culture or society for treating the inhabit- change of knowledge, ideas, thoughts, messages are conveyed primarily and di- ants of the given group. concepts, and emotions among people of rectly in verbal languages and the effects Indigenous personalities conceptualiza- different cultural backgrounds. of context are minimized. tions of personality developed in a partic- Interdependent construal of self a sense Machismo a concept related to Mexican ular culture that are specific and relevant of self that views the self as unbounded, American gender role differentiation that only to that culture. flexible, and contingent on context. This is characterized by many traditional ex- Indirect control a type of control in sense of self is based on a principle of the pectations of the male gender role, such which one’s agency is hidden or down- fundamental connectedness among people. as being unemotional, strong, authorita- played; people pretend as if they are not Internal attributions attributions that tive, and aggressive. acting as an agent even though they are specify the cause of behavior within a Mate poaching attracting someone who doing so in reality. person; also known as dispositional at- is already in a romantic relationship with Individual-level measures of cul- tributions, because they are attributions someone else. ture measures that assess psychological about people’s dispositions. Measurement bias the degree to which dimensions related to meaningful dimen- Internal reliability the degree to which measures used to collect data in different sions of cultural variability and that are different items in a questionnaire are cultures are equally valid and reliable. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChap Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions 48951_glos_ptg01_402-410.indd 406 1/6/16  Glossary  407 Messages the meanings that encoders Normative commitment the degree to Perception the process of gathering intend to convey and decoders interpret. which one’s ties to the organization are information about the world through Microsaccades micro eye movements bound by duty and obligation. our senses; our initial interpretations of that help our brains fill in scenes so it Norms a generally accepted standard of sensations. looks as if we see everything. behavior within a cultural or sub-cultural Permissive parents a style of parenting Mindfulness a Buddhist principle em- group. in which parents allow children to regu- phasizing close attention to the present Obedience a form of compliance that late their own lives and provide few firm moment, being aware of one’s senses, occurs when people follow direct com- guidelines. breathing, and thoughts without judg- mands, usually from someone in a posi- Person perception the process of form- ment or evaluation. A strategy to im- tion of authority. ing impressions of others. prove intercultural communication that Oligarchy an organizational structure Personal identity a form of identity allows people to be conscious of their characterized by rule- or decision-making characterized by the qualities and own habits, mental scripts, and cultural power of a few. Decisions are typically ­attributes that distinguish oneself from expectations concerning communica- made by people “at the top,” who impose others. tion. Mindfulness is effective in reducing their decisions on subordinates. tension, anxiety, and stress and has been Personality a set of relatively enduring incorporated successfully in cognitive Operationalization the ways research- behavioral and cognitive characteristics, behavioral therapies. ers conceptually define a variable and traits, or predispositions that people measure it. take with them to different situations, Model minority stereotype the stereo- Optical illusions perceptions that contexts, and interactions with others, type of Asian Americans that they are ­involve an apparent discrepancy between and that contribute to differences among overachievers. how an object looks and what it actually individuals. Morphemes the smallest and most basic is. Phonemes the smallest and most basic units of meaning in a language. Organizational climate a shared percep- units of sound in a language. Multi-level studies studies that involve tion of organizational policies, practices, data collection at multiple levels of analy- Phonology the system of rules govern- and procedures, and how people feel ing how words should sound (pronuncia- sis, such as the individual level, context, about them. community, and national culture. tion, “accent”) in a given language. Organizational commitment the degree Population density the number of peo- Multinational and international corpo- to which a person is committed, identi- rations work organizations that have ple living within a given unit of space. In fies with, and makes efforts for, his or her a place like a city in which a large num- subsidiaries, satellite offices, and work organization. units in more than one country. ber of people live in a relatively small Organizational culture a dynamic space, the population density is higher Mutual self-enhancement self-enhance- system of rules involving attitudes, than in a rural area where fewer people ment that is achieved through the giving values, beliefs, norms, and behaviors live in each similar amount of space. and receiving of compliments between that are shared among members of an partners in close relationships. Positive logical determinism a tendency organization. to see contradictions as mutually exclu- Naïve dialectivism a constellation of Outgroups a category of individuals sive categories, as either-or, yes-no, one- lay beliefs about the nature of the world people of all cultures create. Outgroup or-the-other types of categories. (rather than a cognitive style as sug- members generally include all individu- gested by dialectical thinking). Naïve dia- Postconventional morality the third als who are not in one’s ingroup. Out- lecticism is characterized by the doctrine stage of Kohlberg’s theory of moral de- group members generally lack a history of the mean, or the belief that the truth is velopment, emphasizing moral reasoning of shared experiences and do not have an always somewhere in the middle. on the basis of individual principles and anticipated future. conscience. National character the perception that Outgroup relationships relationships each culture has a modal personality Postfigurative culture a culture in which that lack the familiarity, intimacy, and type, and that most persons in that cul- change is slow and socialization occurs trust characteristic of relationships with ture share aspects of it. primarily by elders transferring their ingroup others. knowledge to their children. Elders hold Nemawashi the broad-based consensus- Overpathologizing misinterpreting the knowledge necessary for becoming a building procedure that occurs within the culturally sanctioned behavior as expres- successful and competent adult. Japanese ringi system of decision making. sions of pathological symptoms. Nonverbal behaviors all the dynamic Pragmatics the system of rules govern- Paralinguistic cues aspects of the voice ing how language is used and under- behaviors, other than words, that convey that convey information, such as tone, in- stood in given social contexts. messages, including facial expressions; tonation, pitch, speech rate, use of silence. movements and gestures of hands, arms, Preconventional morality the first stage and legs; posture; vocal characteristics Parental ethnotheories parental cultural of Kohlberg’s theory of moral develop- such as pitch, rate, intonation, and si- belief systems. ment, emphasizing compliance with lence; interpersonal space; touching be- Pathogen an infectious agent such as a rules to avoid punishment and gain haviors; and gaze and visual attention. virus or bacteria. rewards. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChap Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions 48951_glos_ptg01_402-410.indd 407 1/6/16  408  Glossary Prefigurative culture a culture that is improvements move themselves upward, Secure attachment a style of attachment changing so rapidly that young people much like a ratchet. in which infants are described as warm may be the ones to teach adults cultural Reference group effect the idea that and responsive to their caregiver. knowledge. people make implicit social comparisons Self-concept the cognitive representa- Prejudice the tendency to prejudge with others when making ratings on tions of who one is, that is, the ideas others on the basis of their group scales. That is, people’s ratings will be or images that one has about oneself, membership. influenced by the implicit comparisons especially in relation to others, and how Priming a method used to determine if they make between themselves and oth- and why one behaves. The sum of one’s one stimulus affects another. ers, and these influences may make com- idea about one’s self, including physical, paring responses across cultures difficult. mental, historical, and relational aspects, Priming studies studies that involve ex- as well as capacities to learn and perform. perimentally manipulating the mindsets Relational identity a form of identity that refers to our qualities of ourselves in Self-concept is usually considered central of participants and measuring the result- to personal identity and change over ing changes in behavior. relation to others. time. It is usually considered partially Problem solving the process by which Reliability the degree to which a finding, conscious and partially unconscious or we attempt to discover ways of achieving measurement, or statistic is consistent. inferred in a given situation. goals that do not seem readily attainable. Religion organized systems of beliefs Self-conscious emotions emotions that Procedural bias the degree to which the that tie together many attitudes, values, focus on the self, such as shame, guilt, procedures used to collect data in differ- beliefs, worldviews, and norms. They pride, or embarrassment. They are impor- ent cultures are equivalent to each other. provide guidelines for living. tant in studies of culture because humans Procedural justice fairness associated Response bias a systematic tendency universally have a unique knowledge with the procedures and processes that to respond in certain ways to items or of self that is different from that of other organizations use to make decisions. scales. animals, thus giving rise to self-conscious emotions. Proxemics the use of space in interper- Reverse culture shock the culture shock sonal relationships. that individuals experience upon return- Self-effacement the tendency to down- ing to their home cultures and realizing play one’s virtues. Proxy control refers to control by some- one else for the benefit of oneself. This is that things are not the same as when they Self-enhancement a collection of a form of control that can be used when left. ­psychological processes by which in- personal control—either direct or indi- Ringi the Japanese process of decision dividuals maintain or enhance their rect—is not available or inappropriate. making, which involves circulating a self-esteem. These are third-party interventions. proposal among all people who will be Self-esteem the cognitive and affective Psychological contracts the perceptions affected by it, addressing concerns and evaluations we make about ourselves. of mutual obligations that exist between negative consequences raised by as many Self-other referents the words used in a organizations and their members, which parties as possible, consulting on as language to refer to oneself and others. differ across cultures. broad a basis as possible about the pro- Self-serving bias a bias in which people posal, and achieving consensus before the Psychometric equivalence the degree tend to attribute good deeds and suc- proposal is formally implemented. to which different measures used in a cesses to their own internal attributes but cross-cultural comparison study are sta- Sacred values values considered to be attribute bad deeds or failures to external tistically equivalent in the cultures being nonnegotiable. They differ from nor- factors. compared—that is, whether the measures mal values because they incorporate Semantics what words mean. are equally valid and reliable in all cul- moral beliefs that drive action in ways tures studied. ­dissociated from prospects for success. Sensation the feelings that result from Across the world, people believe that excitation of the sensory receptors such Psychopathology psychological dis- as touch, taste, smell, sight, or hearing. ­devotion to core values (such as the orders that encompass behavioral, welfare of their family and country or Serial position effect the finding that cognitive, and emotional aspects of their commitment to religion, honor, people tend to remember something bet- functioning. and ­justice) is, or ought to be, absolute ter if it is either the first or the last item Psychotherapy a method of healing that and inviolable. Such values outweigh in a list. emphasizes an explicit focus on the self. other values, particularly economic Sex roles the behaviors and patterns of Racial identity individuals’ psychologi- ones. activities men and women may engage cal membership in a distinct racial group. Sampling bias the degree to which dif- in that are directly related to their bio- Racial microaggressions brief and com- ferent samples in different cultures are logical differences and the process of monplace indignities that communicate equivalent to each other. reproduction. negative slights and insults. Sapir–Whorf hypothesis the proposition Sex the biological and physiological Ratchet effect the concept that humans that speakers of different languages think ­ ifferences between men and women, d continually improve on improvements, differently, and that they do so because the most obvious being the anatomical that they do not go backward or revert to of the differences in their languages. Also ­differences in their reproductive a previous state. Progress occurs because referred to as linguistic relativity. systems. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChap Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions 48951_glos_ptg01_402-410.indd 408 1/6/16  Glossary  409 Sexual harassment unwelcome sexual Socialization and enculturation people in Western cultures focus more advances, requests for sexual favors, agents the people, institutions, and or- on representations on paper than do or other verbal or physical conduct of ganizations that exist to help ensure that people in other cultures, and in particular a sexual nature in which submission to socialization and enculturation occurs. spend more time learning to interpret such behavior is a condition to employ- Socialization the process by which we pictures. ment and employment decisions affecting learn and internalize the rules and pat- Syntax and grammar the system of rules the individual (such as promotion), and terns of behavior that are affected by governing word forms and how words where the behavior interferes with the culture. This process, which occurs over a should be strung together to form mean- individual’s work environment or cre- long time, involves learning and master- ingful utterances. ates an intimidating, offensive, or hostile ing societal and cultural norms, attitudes, Tactical self-enhancement the idea work environment. values, and belief systems. that people of different cultures all self- Sexual identity the degree of awareness Socially desirable responding tenden- enhance, but they choose to do it in dif- and recognition by an individual of his or cies to give answers on questionnaires ferent ways (i.e., tactically). her sex and sex roles. that make oneself look good. Teamthink teamthink involves the Shared intentionality knowledge about Socially disengaging emotions emo- encouragement of divergent views, motivations concerning behaviors that tions that occur as a result of themes open expression of concerns and ideas, are common among people in a group. grounded in independence and au- awareness of limitations and threats, Signals the specific words and behaviors tonomy of the self, and its separateness recognition of members’ uniqueness, and that are sent during communication that from others. discussion of collective doubts. convey messages. Socially engaging emotions emotions Temperament qualities of responsive- Slow-to-warm-up a type of tempera- that occur as a result of themes derived ness to the environment that exist from ment in which infants need time to make from social interdependence and relation- birth and evoke different reactions from transitions in activity and experiences. ships with others. people in the baby’s world. Temperament Though they may withdraw initially or Speech illustrators nonverbal behaviors, is generally considered to be a biologi- respond negatively, given time and sup- often gestures, that accompany speech cally based style of interacting with the port they will adapt and react positively. and are used to illustrate or highlight world. Social axioms general beliefs and prem- speech. Terror management theory the theory ises about oneself, the social and physical Stereotype threat the threat that others’ that suggests that, because humans have environment, and the spiritual world. judgments or one’s own actions will neg- unique cognitive abilities, they are the They are assertions about the relationship atively stereotype one in a domain (such only animals that are aware of the fact between two or more entities or concepts; as academic achievement). that we will die eventually, and we are people endorse and use them to guide afraid, terrified in fact, of that inevitable their behavior in daily living, such as Stereotypes generalized images we have death. Because inevitable death is ter- about groups of people, particularly “belief in a religion helps one understand rifying to us, we create psychological about their underlying psychological the meaning of life.” phenomena as a buffer against the terror characteristics or personality traits. of dying. Social capital this refers to the soci