Psychology Terms and Concepts PDF

Attribution Theory The theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition Example: We notice that Juliet seldom talks in class and at the game, jack talks nonstop, that must be the kind of people they are Fundamental Attribution Error The tendenc...

Attribution Theory The theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition Example: We notice that Juliet seldom talks in class and at the game, jack talks nonstop, that must be the kind of people they are Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency for observers, when analyzing others' behavior, to underestimate the impact of situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition Internal Dispositions Dispositional factors; Attributing a person's behavior to the person's stable, enduring traits External Dispositions Situational Factors; Attributing a person's behavior to the situation Attitude Feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events Cognitive Attitude This involves a person's knowledge/belief about an attitude object. "I believe spiders are dangerous" Emotional Attitude This involves a person's feelings/emotions about the attitude object. "I am scared of spiders" Behavioral Attitude The way the attitude we have influences how we act or behave "I will avoid spiders and scream if I see one" Foot in the door Phenomenon The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request Example: Ask for a ride to racetrack, then while you are there, ask for starbucks, then … Door in the Face Phenomenon Ask for something you want and then get turned down but then ask for a smaller request Low Ball A technique used in sales and other styles of persuasion to offer products or services at a bargain price in order to attract the first buyer, but then adds on additional expenses to make the purchase less of a bargain than originally thought That's-Not-All Technique When offering or conceding something to somebody, rather than give it to them as a final item, give it in incremental pieces. Do not allow them to respond to each piece you give them -- keep on offering more. Central Route Persuasion Occurs when interested people focus on arguments and respond with favorable thoughts Peripheral Route Persuasion Occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as speaker's attractiveness Elaboration-likelihood model of persuasion people are more likely to carefully process persuasive messages when they are motivated and capable of considering all available information. Role Set of expectations(norms) about a social position, defining how those in position ought to behave Example: When you leave middle school and start high school Social Norm Understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. These prescribe "proper" behavior Cognitive Dissonance Theory Theory that we act to reduce discomfort(dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts(cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we became aware that our attitudes and actions clash, we can reduce resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes The Chameleon Effect Mimicry; People inadvertently mimic each other Example: Yawning Automatic Mimicry our tendency to unconsciously imitate others' expressions, postures, and voice tones, is a form of conformit Normative Social Influence Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval Informational Social Influence Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality Conformity Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with group standard "Birkenhead Drill" To calm and give priority to passengers, soldiers obeyed orders to line up on deck as their ship sank Social Facilitation Improved performance on simple or well learned tasks in the presence of others Social Impairment occurs when an individual acts in a less positive way or performs worse when they are around others. Deindividuation Loss of self awareness and self restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity Social Loafing Tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable Group Polarization Enhancement of group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group Group Think Mode of thinking that occurs when desire for harmony in decision-making group overrides realistic appraisal of alternatives Social Control The power of the situation Personal Control The power of the individual Minority Influence The power of 1 or 2 individuals to sway majorities Prejudice Unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. This generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and predisposition to discriminatory action Autonomic Prejudice Automatic judgement people have towards a different race Stereotypes A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people Discrimintation Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members Ingroup "Us"- People with whom we share a common identity Outgroup "Them"- Those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup Ingroup Bias Tendency to favor our own group Scapegoat Theory Theory that prejudice offers outlet for anger by providing someone to blame Aggression Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy Frustration-Aggression Principle Principle that frustration- blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger which can generate anger Social Traps short-term solution to a problem that ultimately causes a long-term loss Social Identity Theory We associate ourselves with a certain group This theory addresses the ways in which people perceive and categorize themselves. Stereotype Vulnerability the apprehension experienced by members of a minority group that they might behave in a manner that confirms an existing cultural stereotype Other-Race Effect Tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races. AKA cross-race effect or own-race bias Social Script Culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Belief that leads to its own fulfillment Jigsaw Classroom teaching method that focuses on fostering student cooperation rather than competition. Conflict Perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas Realistic Conflict Theory a social model that attempts to explain why prejudice, negative stereotypes, and discrimination are developed towards members of other social groups. Mere Exposure Effect Phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them Passionate Love Aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of love relationship Compassionate Love Deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined Equity Condition in which people receive from relationship in proportion to what they give to it Self-Disclosure Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others Altruism Unselfish regard for the welfare of others Do Good, Feel Good Phenomenon … Social Exchange Theory Theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs Superordinate Goals Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation Just World Phenomenon Tendency for people to believe the world is just and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get Blame the Victim Phenomenon occurs when the victim of a crime or any wrongful act is held entirely or partially responsible for the harm that befell them. Bystander Effect The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present Social Responsibility Norm Expectation that those will help those needing their help Reciprocity Norm Expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them GRIT- Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives Tensions-Reduction Strategy designed to decrease international tensions Mirror Image Perceptions Mutual views often held by conflicting people, as which each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive Zimbardo Stanford Prison Experiment a controversial experiment which investigated the psychological effects of being a prisoner or prison guard. In the experiment, college students were randomly assigned to become prisoners or guards. Solomon Asch Experiment In his experiments participants were put in a room with other people that they were led to believe were other participants but were in fact confederates, which are experimenters pretending to be participants. When asked which line on a board was the longest the confederates would respond by choosing a line that wasn't the longest. This would frequently cause the real participant to choose the same line even though it clearly wasn't the longest. Stanley Milgram Experiment The study found that a big majority of the participants were willing to obey an authority figure even when they were being instructed to do something that they believed was morally wrong. Triplett's Theory cyclist's performance when alone was compared with a cyclist's performance when racing against another cyclist. He found that the cyclist was slowest when he was only racing the clock and not another cyclist. He attributed these results to a competitive instinct which releases energy that was not available when peddling alone. Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Exercise Experiment done by Jane Elliot to create awareness of racism and discrimination by dividing an elementary school class based on eye color.