Copy of Exam Glossary - Anthro PDF

Main Theorists Main Discoveries, Findings, Discipline, General Knowledge Anthropology Theorists Margaret Mead (cultural) ○ Dian Fossey (Primatology) ○ Jane Goodall (Primatology) ○ Donald Johanson (Paleoanthropology) ○ Charles Darwin (Paleoanthropology) ○ Raymond Dart...

Main Theorists Main Discoveries, Findings, Discipline, General Knowledge Anthropology Theorists Margaret Mead (cultural) ○ Dian Fossey (Primatology) ○ Jane Goodall (Primatology) ○ Donald Johanson (Paleoanthropology) ○ Charles Darwin (Paleoanthropology) ○ Raymond Dart (Paleoanthropology) ○ Psychology Theorists Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning (Behaviourism) ○ Pavlov was investigating salivation in dogs in response to being fed. He noticed that his dogs would begin to salivate whenever he entered the room… Even when he was not bringing them food  B.F Skinner- operant conditioning (Behaviourism) ○ He was concerned with only observable behaviours Used rats and pigeons to showcase how rewards and punishment can influence behaviour Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalysis) Freudian Slip ○ An unintentional error regarded as revealing subconscious feelings I.e Calling your new love interest by your ex’s name would lead psychoanalysis to speculate that you have unresolved feelings or reservations about a new relationship ○ All human behaviour is influenced by early childhood and childhood experiences influence the unconscious mind throughout life (refer to Psychoanalytic theory) Defence mechanisms ○ Karen Horney (Psychoanalysis) ○ Neo-Freudian Modifies Freud’s theory to include social and cultural aspects ○ Personality Personality is NOT influenced by sexual conflicts in childhood ○ Females Women were pushed by society and culture to depend on men for love and status  Offers an alternative theory to counter the biases related to the “female human identity” Conflicts develop as a result of feeling unsafe, unloved or undervalued ○ Argued that in contrast to Freud’s theory, men could feel threatened by women’s ability to have children (“womb envy”) ○ She opposed the idea women were physically jealous of men Carl Jung (Psychoanalysis) * Jung on the Mind Analytical psychology ○ A branch of psychology based on the idea that balancing a person’s psyche would allow the person to reach his or her full potential Unconscious Mind = Personal + Collective The “Psyche” - The conscious and unconscious mind The personal unconscious ○ Unique to each individual The collective unconscious ○ Contains memories from ancestors, shared by all humans regardless of culture Archetypes ○ Universal symbols that tend to reappear over time including models of people, behaviours and personalities Human behaviour is motivated opposite tendencies ○ Most people have both elements but balancing the two is important Jung also focused on collective unconscious  ○ The archetypal figures that ALL people share knowledge of Archetype Examples Mother ○ Soothing, nurturing Father ○ Stern, powerful, controlling Hero ○ Courageous champion Trickster ○ Deceptive Jung felt that examining past experiences, dreams and fantasies was useful for understanding the unconscious self ○ He believed that using the imagination with little influence allowed the unconscious mind to express itself ○ Abraham Maslow (Humanism) ○ We are driven by basic psychological needs initially but once they are met we are also driven by our social needs Food, water and shelter Security Love and acceptance Recognition or esteem Self-actualisation Viktor Frankl (Humanism) ○ Austrian neurologist, psychologist, philosopher, and Holocaust survivor, who founded logotherapy, a school of psychotherapy  that describes a search for a life's meaning as the central human motivational force. Karl Rogers (Humanism) ○ Austrian neurologist, psychologist, philosopher, and Holocaust survivor, who founded logotherapy, a school of psychotherapy that describes a search for a life's meaning as the central human motivational force. Albert Bandura (Cognitive) ○ Elizabeth Loftus (Cognitive) ○ Sociology Theorists Emile Durkheim (Structural functionalism) ○ Formally established sociology as a discipline ○ Studied the forces that unite individuals in society. he observed that humans are social creatures and define themselves by their social interactions at home work play and worship ○ He studied social facts (values norms and social structures) and concluded that although in the end, it is the individual's decision to commit suicide, the causes of suicide are rooted deeply in society *( men are more likely to commit suicide) Talcott Parsons ( Structural functionalism) ○ concluded that; although people act in their own self-interest, there is still a strong desire among people to get along with each other and cooperate to achieve goals based on shared values ○ He believed in social evolution and social Darwinism  ○ His ideas were controversial because they suggest that the negative aspects of society such as discrimination serve a purpose. Karl Marx (Conflict Theory) ○ His theories concentrate on; class conflict its role in social evolution and its usefulness in studying social issues ○ Society is based on fierce competition for power and wealth ○ Wealthy make it impossible for the poor to ever achieve economic equality ○ Conflict between social classes creates isolation which leads to disruption and change ○ Needs to understand the economy if you want to understand social changes ○ Marx’s work is important because his ideas about power and exploitation helps explain the inequalities in all human societies Dorothy Smith (Feminist Sociology) ○ Women are “alienated from their experiences” Max Weber (Symbolic Interactionism) ○ Theory of rationalization social actions motivated by efficacy or benefit rather than morality, custom or emotion Introduction to Social Sciences Definitions of the social sciences Question of the century: What does this teach us about human behaviour? Anthropology Anthropology is the systematic study of various elements of humanism including: Biology - What are our evolutionary origins? Culture - How do beliefs and customs evolve? ○ The Four Subdisciplines of Anthropology: Cultural Anthropology Physical Anthropology Linguistics Archaeology Physical Anthropology ○ Primarily concerned with humans as a biological species ○ Most closely related to natural sciences Cultural anthropology ○ Sometimes known as Ethnology ○ It examines contemporary societies ○ cultures throughout the world Big Questions: ○ Where did we come from? ○ What does it mean to be “human”? ○ Where are we headed? Psychology The science of behaviour and mental processes through the observation of human behaviour There are TWO branches of Psychology ○ Theoretical Psychology Social Scientists examine the general rules that govern how we think and how we behave  ○ Clinical Psychology A study is made to examine emotions and help those experiencing psychological problems Main Branches of Psychology ○ Behaviourism: (Experimentation) to understand and change human behaviour through scientifically proven intervention. Applied to mental health and groups ○ Psychoanalysis: Unlocking the unconscious mind is the key to understanding human behaviour and relationships. This approach to therapy focuses on resolving a patient’s conflicted conscience and unconscious feelings ○ Humanis: The patient should be very involved in recovery. The focus is on qualitative observation in recovery or in transition. ○ Cognitive: Studies how the brain learns best. Psychologists believe in and consider mental states, such as beliefs, motivations and desires. Used to treat people with mental disorders or neurological disorders. Big Questions: ○ Are humans naturally aggressive? ○ How are we conditioned to react in situations? ○ What deep, dark impulses hide in our psyches? ○ What happens if a child grows up isolated from humans? Sociology What is Sociology? ○ The Scientific study of human societies and social behaviour.  Examines the relationships of people and the social structures they develop. Focuses on how institutions like schools, prisons, health care and the media impact the way we live in society. Sociologists explore how the categories we belong to (Students, females or males, brothers or sisters) shape our experiences. Ask why and how individuals become part of groups and societies? Try to understand how individuals are influenced by society. Big Questions: ○ How does education differ across countries? ○ What impact does the correctional system have on society? How do correctional institutions differ around the world? ○ What is the impact of gender roles on society? How do these roles differ cross-culturally? ○ What impact do healthcare systems have on societies? Human behaviour is affected by: ○ Family or social environment ○ Life experiences such as trauma, bereavement, divorce/separation, job loss, substance abuse, any change in life circumstances. ○ Hereditary/Genetic Disorder Physical Anthropology Paleoanthropology ○ the study of human evolution through the fossil and archaeological records  Homosapien ○ Humans or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus Homo. Bipedalism ○ A major type of locomotion, involving movement on two feet Melanin ○ Melanin is a pigment in our skin that acts as a natural sunscreen and protects our skin from UV. Australopithecus ○ Australopithecus is a genus of early hominids that existed in Africa during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene Boisei (nearman) ○ Existed 2 million years ago in East Africa Homo Habilis ○ Handyman ○ the Early Pleistocene of East and South Africa about 2.4 million years ago to 1.4 million years ago Homo ergaster ○ lived in Africa ○ working man ○ 1.7 to 1.4 million years ago Homo Erectus ○ Lived in bamboo forests ○ 1.7 to 1.4 million years ago Homo Heidelbergensis ○ Lived 600,000 years ago in Africa and Europe ○ Up to 6ft tall ○ Used herbs to cure illnesses and fight infections  Primatology ○ The study of the behavior, biology, evolution, and taxonomy of nonhuman primates Cultural Anthropology Ethnology ○ The study and comparison of past and contemporary cultures Archaeology ○ Archaeologists seek out and examine the artifacts of past societies Kinship ○ The relationship between two or more people that is based on common ancestry, marriage or adoption Rites of Passage ○ A ceremonial event, existing in all historically known societies, that marks the passage from one social or religious status to another Gender Roles ○ A set of societal norms, dictating what types of behaviors are genetically considered acceptable, appropriate or desirable for a person based of their actual perceived sex Gender Identity ○ One’s personal experience of one’s own gender. A person’s private sense of being a man or a woman, consisting primarily of the acceptance of membership into a category of following identities  Cultural Relativism ○ The idea that beliefs, customs, practises and rituals of a culture must be observed & evaluated from the perspective of where they originated Ethnocentrism ○ The belief that one’s own culture is superior to others Functional Theory ○ Every belief in a culture functions to meet the needs of an individual making the culture successful All social or cultural institutions and behaviours have a function or reason for happening in the particular culture. These institutions are interdependent-culture is like a system that needs all of its parts in working order Two Fundamental Principles: Universal Functions ○ Every part of a culture has a function Functional Unity ○ A culture is an integrated whole composed of a number of interrelated parts. A change in one part of the culture is likely to produce a change in other parts Cultural materialism ○ Materials or conditions in an environment (climate food geography, etc…) influence how a culture develops and creates ideas ○ Material needs (food, clothing, shelter) are more important than abstract needs (ideas, values, religion)in determining cultural behaviour  Feminist Theory ○ Comparing cultures to see how many are dominated by men vs. women Postmodernism ○ Reflect on the idea of objective truth: What we know is our own construction of reality ○ Anthropologists must study their OWN culture because they can’t be objective about others Psychology Behaviourism Definition ○ to understand and change human behaviour through scientifically proven intervention ○ Applied to mental health and groups Classical Conditioning ○ A type of learning where once a neutral stimulus comes to produce a particular response after pairings with a conditioned stimulus Operant Conditioning ○ A type of learning that uses rewards and punishment to achieve a desired behaviour Reinforcement ○ Any event that strengthens or increases the behaviour it follows Punishment ○ Opposite of reinforcement. It is designed to weaken or eliminate a behaviour rather than increase it Extinction  ○ The diminishing of a conditioned response due to lack of reinforcement Conditioned Stimulus ○ When a neutral object, action, or person is connected to a specific response over time Conditioned Response ○ A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Neutral Stimulus ○ A stimulus that does not require any conditioning for desired behaviour Unconditioned Stimulus ○ Something that naturally triggers an automatic response. Unconditioned Response ○ A natural response that is automatic, reflexive, and unlearned. Generalization (Stimulus Generalization) ○ The tendency to give something similar responses (conditioned responses) to both the conditioned stimulus and to other stimuli that resemble it in some way Cognitive Psychology Definition ○ Studies how the brain learns best. Psychologists believe in and consider mental states, such as beliefs, motivations and desires ○ Used to treat people with mental disorders or neurological disorders Social learning theory ○ Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social setting ○ Learning can occur by observing behaviour and the consequences of such ○ It can happen without an observable change in behaviour  ○ Reinforcements play a role but are not entirely responsible for learning ○ Cognition, behaviour, and Environment all interact with and influence each other →Reciprocal determinisms Bobo the Clown Experiment ○ Adults were dressed in costumes to imitate animated characters the children saw in their lives to build trust. Children imitated the violence they saw on the video of a trusted adult displaying aggressive/violent human behaviour (kicking, punching, throwing) on a Bobo doll while getting rewarded for their actions. However, the children who saw the adults who got punished for their behaviour showed less aggression fearful of the consequences The control group (no consequence) still imitated some aggressive behaviours, which shows that observation alone can influence behaviour. Psychoanalysis Definition ○ Unlocking the unconscious mind is the key to understanding human behaviour and relationships ○ This approach to therapy focuses on resolving a patient’s conflicted conscience and unconscious feelings The conscious mind ○ Information that we are always aware of, performing the thinking when we take in new information The unconscious mind  ○ Information processing in our mind that we are not aware of including our unacceptable thoughts, feelings and memories ID ○ The instinctual part of the mind, which operates on the pleasure principle. ○ Primal impulses ○ Pleasure seeking element that can lead to self-destruction Ego ○ The rational part of the mind which operates on the “reality principle”, suppressing the urges of the Id ○ Element of the mind that encourages positive and thoughtful actions that will benefit the individual ○ Represses unacceptable feelings and memories from consciousness so that they remain below the surface SuperEgo ○ The moral centre of the mind (conscience) ○ Urges us to strive for perfection Defense mechanisms - unconscious psychological responses that protect people from feelings of anxiety, threats to self-esteem, and things that they don't want to think about or deal with ○ Denial When a person refuses to recognize that something is painful ○ Displacement The shift of an emotion from its original focus to another object, person or situation ○ Projection When a person attributes their own threatening impulses onto someone else ○ Rationalization  Justifying difficult or unacceptable feelings with seemingly logical reasons and explanations ○ Repression When unacceptable desires are excluded from consciousness and left to operate in the unconscious ○ Reaction Formation Unconsciously replacing an unwanted or anxiety-provoking impulse with its opposite ○ Regression Regressing to earlier developmental stages, such as when it is normal to have excessive dependence or temper tantrums ○ Sublimation Channeling unwanted or unacceptable urges into an admissible or productive outlet Humanistic Psychology Definition ○ The patient should be very involved in recovery ○ The focus is on qualitative observation in recovery or in transition. Humanistic Psychology focuses on each individual’s potential, growth, and self-actualization. People have Free will (choices we make, consequences of actions). The fundamental belief is that people are innately good and that mental/social problems result from deviations from the natural tendency Abraham Maslow = Founder of humanistic psychology, created Hierarchy of Needs Theory  ○ States that humans need to satisfy the most basic (physiological) needs first before attempting to satisfy more sophisticated (social) needs ○ Basic needs > psychological needs > self-fulfillment needs Frankl concluded that humans are motivated by meaning in their life ○ People who cannot find meaning in life feel empty ○ Logotherapy: psychological therapy that tries to help the patient find the meaning of their life without accessing the medical aspect of mental health. Rogers believed that for a person to grow, they need the appropriate environment that provides them with: ○ Genuineness ○ Empathy ○ Acceptance ○ Creates a warm and welcoming environment for the patient to feel comfortable about sharing their emotions without judgment Sociology Socialization ○ The process of learning behavioural patterns, skills and values in a society Abnormal Socialization ○ Child Abuse ○ Feral & Isolate Children Structural Functionalism ○ States that a society is stable when social institutions meet the needs of its citizens (Ex: Family, Religion, Schools, etc…) Conflict Theory ○ Studies competition between different groups for power (those who have economic and political power and those who don’t)  Feminist Sociology ○ Focuses on gender inequality where men control over women’s jobs and how society favours men over women (if that's the case, why can’t I get no bitches?)(cause you get the guys anyway, don't get greedy Brandon) Symbolic Interactionism ○ Focuses on the individual in society where social life depends on our ability to imagine ourselves in social roles and see ourselves reflected in the experiences of those around us Asch Experiment Stanley Milgram Experiment Gangs ○ A group of people associated for anti-social, criminal defiant behaviour Cliques ○ An exclusive group that includes a small number of chosen members (2-12 members) Conformity ○ Where people change their beliefs, attitudes, actions, or perceptions to more closely match those held by groups to which they belong or want to belong or by groups whose approval they desire. Roles ○ Social roles, specific function, socialised to roles in society Norms ○ Appropriate behaviour, govern members of society, members of groups Prejudice and discrimination Overt Discrimination ○ Intentional actions that are taken against an individual or group  because of some distinguishing characteristic that they possess. Systematic Discrimination ○ Subtle or unintentional discrimination against a person or group where the consequences or outcome are not fully understood by those taking action. Classism ○ Discrimination based on social economic class Ageism ○ Discrimination based on age (Youth on Elderly) Homophobia ○ Discrimination based on prejudice or fear of homosexuality Sexism ○ Discrimination based on gender Ableism ○ Discrimination based on the assumption of being able bodied Racism ○ Discrimination based on the ideology that some races are superior Islamophobia ○ Discrimination based on the dislike and prejudice of Islams and Muslims Theories of discrimination Learned theory ○ Suggests that discriminatory behaviour is not innate. Learned from those around you both positive and negative Competition Theory ○ Belief that other groups are taking away your opportunity Ie immigrants taking jobs Aggression theory ○ One even leads to enacting revenge on all people of that group  A scapegoat is a specific person or group who becomes the target of hatred or blame for the hardship of others. Ignorance Theory ○ Lack of personal/life experiences leads to incorrect assumptions. Ethnocentrism is the leading cause of this rationale for discrimination. Socialization What is socialisation? ○ The process of learning behavioural patterns, skills and values in a society What are agents of socialization? ○ Primary Agents La Famila ○ Secondary Agents School, Peer Groups, Media, Religion, Culture How does our environment shape our behaviour? Social class & poverty Social Classes: ○ Groups of people receive more benefits or who have more influence and power than other groups. MERITOCRACY ○ system based on ability: a social system that gives opportunities and advantages to people on the basis of their ability rather than, e.g. their wealth or seniority SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ○ The institutional and social processes that define certain types of occupations and goods as socially desirable.  ○ Leads to inequality SOCIAL INEQUALITY ○ The inability of some people and the success of others to attain access to the privileges, rewards or assets of society Classical Experiments State the purpose, procedure and result of the experiment Phycology Experiments Bobo the Clown ( Cognitive Psychology) ○ A group of children were shown a demonstration of adults abusing a clown with various instruments. ○ The children were then lightly aggravated (their toys were taken away) and then they were given the same clown doll on which they were free to do whatever they wanted. ○ A majority of children reenacted the violence shown by the model. ( most boys and about half of girls) Little Albert & The White Rat (Classical Conditioning) ○ The goal of this experiment was to see whether Little Albert could be conditioned into fear of a white rat ○ Every time Little Albert touches the rat or the rat goes near him, Watson and Rayner would bang a large steel pipe with a hammer just above Albert’s head. ○ The result was that Little Albert was conditioned to fear both white rats and anything white and furry.  Pavlov’s Dog ( classical conditioning) ○ To see whether the dog could be conditioned to salivate when the bell rang but no food. ○ Pavlov rings the bell every time with food so the dog associates the bell with food. But after a while, Pavlov will just ring the bell with no food in hand. ○ Pavlov’s dog now associates the bell with food, even with no food present, the dog will run to the bell in hopes of food. Skinner Box (Operant conditioning) ○ If we can condition a rat then extinct the behaviour ○ Every time a pedal was pressed, a food pellet would come out and after a while, the rat would press the pedal often to get pellets. To uncondition the behaviour, Skinner would shock the rat every time the rat pushed the pedal. ○ The rat has been conditioned and unconditioned. Sociology Experiments Solomon Asch: Line Study (Conformity) ○ A participant was asked which of 3 lines was closest to the line presented. A large group of actors would however all give the same wrong answer to trying to pressure the participant into giving the same wrong answer. ○ Most participants conformed. ○ Aimed to test the power of social pressures on conformity  Milgram’s Shock Experiment ( Conformity) ○ A participant was asked to deliver increasingly powerful electric shocks to a subject ( actor) for each question they answered incorrectly. ○ The experiment found that participants when given orders from a figure of authority were highly likely to administer the deadly shocks repeatedly Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment ○ Designed to understand how roles shape human behaviour ○ A mock prison was set up, and roles were given to guards and prisoners. ○ After a short time, the guards became abusive and the prisoners began to break/ lose their identity. Jane Eliot’s Blue vs brown Eyes Experiment ○ An elementary school teacher divided her class into social groups assigning them rights and privileges ( based on their eye colour) ○ The young kids quickly became aggressive against the other group despite being good kids up until that morning. ○ Aimed to show that racism and prejudice is a learned behaviour and not innate (The Theories of Racism) Psychology Case Studies Genie Wiley ○ She was isolated from the world, locked up in her room by her father.  ○ She had no social interactions and could not speak, was not able to walk and was not potty trained. ○ During rehabilitation, she was able to speak words but not able to create coherent sentences Demonstrates the impact of nurture as a social development Jim Twins ○ Two twins who were separated at a young age and when they were reunited they found many similarities between the two. Shows the importance of nature and its impact on our development The Edith Experiment ○ Created by Aaron Stern he wanted to see if the right environment could create a genius ○ Starting at birth he taught her with flashcards and classical music She got her PhD at 18 Sociology Case Studies Oxana Malaya ○ She was a Feral child (raised by animals) who was locked out by her abusive parents leading her to take shelter with the local dogs ○ Type of abnormal socialization ○ Demonstrates human behaviour is learned from our primary agents of socialization Genie Wiley ○ ( read above for context) She was an Isolate child ○ Demonstrates the negative impacts of having no or negative agents of socialization.  Stanford prison experiment ○ Main concern with the ethics of the experiment ○ Group of students ( guards and prisoners) were locked up in the basement as a prison ○ After a few days, things started getting bad ○ How social structure/ roles impact behaviour Theories Anthropology Theories Theory of Evolution ○ Study of human biology, particularly the origins, diversity, and adaptations of modern people and our ancestors. To place humans in a comparative perspective, physical anthropologists also study the origins and biology of the non-human primates ○ Believes that human beings evolved or changed from animal life forms over time into modern human beings. ○ Charles Darwin Individual in any population vary from each other, even siblings These variations can be inherited Populations produce more offspring than the environment can support yet populations remain stable Those individuals with “favourable variations” are more likely to leave more offspring The passing on of “Favourable variations” to more individuals leads to the population evolving gradually ○ Natural Selection  Environmental factors/conditions (nature) determine (select) how well particular traits of organisms can serve that survival and reproduction of the organism. ○ Survival of the Fittest Natural process Given a species advantages they are able to adapt to a specific environment or conditions better than others Able to live longer, survive, and pass genes onto offspring, which provides them with the same advantages to survive Cultural Relativism ○ Culture cannot be compared because each has its own rules that must be accepted ○ Everyone sees other cultures through the lens of their own culture ○ The idea that beliefs, customs, practises and rituals of a culture must be observed & evaluated from the perspective of where they originated ○ Attempts to respond to ethnocentric Ethnocentrism ○ The belief that one’s own culture is superior to others Anti-Ethnocentrism Against the idea of judging a culture as inferior than your own Functional Theory ○ Every belief in a culture functions to meet the needs of an individual making the culture successful ○ All social or cultural institutions and behaviours have a function or reason for happening in the particular culture ○ These institutions are interdependent-culture is like a system that needs all of its parts in working order ○ Two Fundamental Principles:  1. Universal Functions Every part of a culture has a function 2. Functional Unity A culture is an integrated whole composed of a number of interrelated parts A change in one part of the culture is likely to produce a change in other parts Cultural Materialism ○ Materials or conditions in an environment (climate food geography, etc…) influence how a culture develops and creates ideas ○ Material needs (food, clothing, shelter) are more important than abstract needs (ideas, values, religion)in determining cultural behaviour ○ Culture develops on a trial-error basis If something is not of value to society it will disappear Laws, government and religion must benefit a society or it disappears ○ Feminist Anthropology ○ Comparing cultures to see how many are dominated by men vs. women ○ Today’s studies focus on gender being culturally constructed NOT biological ○ Feminist Anthropologist has raised awareness regarding the role, status and contributions of women in their societies ○ Postmodernism ○ Reflect on the idea of objective truth: What we know is our own construction of reality  ○ Anthropologists must study their OWN culture because they can’t be objective about others ○ Concerned with subjectivity, because ethnographies are influenced by whoever is writing them ○ It is important to include the opinions of the people being studied ○ Recognizing the idea of cultural relativism is important ○ Rejection of sciences and scientific “methods” ○ Reflection of big, universal theories which explain cultures ○ Psychology Theories Social Learning Theory ○ Learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social setting ○ Learning can occur by observing behaviour and the consequences of such ○ It can happen without an observable change in behaviour Just because you see and learn doesn’t mean you instantly show it ○ Reinforcements play a role but are not entirely responsible for learning ○ Cognition, behaviour, and Environment all interact with and influence each other → Reciprocal determinisms ○ Behaviouralism ○ Psychologists need evidence-based findings, obtained through experimentation, to understand and change human behaviour. ○ Emphasizes the importance of observable behaviour Behaviour is the result of stimulus Response (all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response association) ○ 2 types of learning: Classical conditioning (refer to Classical conditioning) Operant conditioning (refer to Operant conditioning) ○  Humanistic Psychology Theory ○ Humanist psychologists believed that the patient should be very involved in recovery Focuses on qualitative studies ○ Humanistic psychology is focused on each individual's potential and stresses the importance of growth and self-actualization. People have Free Will → personal agency (choices we make, consequences of actions) ○ Believes people are innately good and that mental & social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency. They have the capacity to overcome hardship ○ The way to understand people is to sit down and talk to them, share experiences, and be open to their feelings ○ All individuals are unique and motivated to achieve their potential. ○ Proper understanding of human behaviour achieved through study of humans, not animals → humans conscious beings capable of thought, reason, language ○ Study of the individual case, rather than the average performance of groups. ○ Motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behaviour. First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of safety, love, and esteem. Once lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes the need for self-actualization, or the desire to fulfill one's individual potential. ○ Cognitive ○ Cognitive psychology studies how the brain learns ○ Psychologists believe in and concierge mental states, such as beliefs motivations and desires Used to treat people with mental disorders or neurological disorders ○ Try to understand the human thought process and how we acquire, process, and store information ○  Psychoanalytical ○ Human behavior is deeply influenced by unconscious thoughts, desires, and childhood experiences This approach to therapy focuses on resolving a patient’s conflicted conscious and unconscious feelings ○ Freud All human behaviour is influenced by early childhood and that childhood experiences influence the unconscious mind throughout life ○ Jung ○ Analytical psychology A branch of psychology based on the idea that balancing a person’s psyche would allow the person to reach his or her full potential Unconscious Mind = Personal + Collective ○ ○ Karen Modifies Freud’s theory to include social and cultural aspects Personality is NOT influenced by sexual conflicts in childhood Women were pushed by society and culture to depend on men for love and status Conflicts develop as a result of feeling unsafe, unloved or undervalued Argued that in contrast to Freud’s theory, men could feel threatened by women’s ability to have children ○ Sociology Theories Conflict Theory ○ Modeled after the works of Marx ○ Studies competition between different groups for power (those who have economic and political power for those who don't) ○ Focused on conflict within the economic system between two distinct classes- the wealthy class of owners and the poor class  ○ The imbalance between these two groups is the source of conflict in society ○ People with power want to keep it from those who don't ○ Institutions alienate the poor making them feel powerless ○ The general focus is on economic balance but it can also be applied to other imbalances such as gender and race Learning Theory ○ Suggests that discriminatory behaviour is not innate. ○ Children imitate both positive and negative actions/beliefs of parents. ○ Prejudice views are passed down and will stick to children until their adolescent years where they decide to abandon them or not. ○ This decision is often based on the quality of secondary and anticipatory socialization agents. Competition Theory ○ Prejudice exists among non-Caucasian immigrants in Canada even though this country advocates for multiculturalism. ○ Economic competition among native born Canadians and immigrants arouse this distrust. ○ The unemployed may feel like a potential job for them has been taken by a newcomer and as a result resent them. ○ They may also believe that newcomers put unnecessary strain on our social and health systems. Aggression Theory ○ Negative individual experiences may lead to displacement of one’s frustration to a target group. ○ People in this situation act out on those they consider to be ‘other’. ○ The most dangerous outcome of this theory is the creation of a scapegoat. A scapegoat is a specific person or group who becomes the target of hatred or blame for hardship of others. ○ Ignorance Theory ○ Lack of personal/life experiences lead to incorrect assumptions. ○ When we refuse to learn about a group we remain unaware of how/why they function the way they do. ○ It is fear of unfamiliar practices that guides discriminatory behaviour. ○ Ethnocentrism is the leading cause of this rationale for discrimination.  Structural Functionalism ○ Structural functionalism states that a society is stable when social institutions meet the needs of its citizens Ex. family, religion, politics,school These institutions or structures of society are interdependent and work together to meet the needs of individuals and help society function ○ Structural functionalism places a great deal of emphasis on the power of social structures Social structures are positive for society and they create harmony and happiness among its members ○ There is the idea that having optimism means that society can meet the diverse needs of its members ○ Criticism Some say that this school of thought does not account for the destructive forces within society What are some issues that can be destructive in society? Issues that may be overlooked by structural functionalism are racism, poverty, sexism ○ Symbolic Interactionism ○ Focuses on the micro level ○ Emphasis is the individual living within a larger society ○ The individual is at the center of society's social values and roles are formed by individual interpretation ○ Social life depends on our ability to imagine ourselves in social roles and see ourselves reflected in the experiences of those around us ○ Behaviour in society is rooted in our response and reaction to it ○ Focus is on the way individuals interpret social situations and give meaning to social interactions ○ We can adjust our personality to different situations ○