Europe in the 1800s - PDF

Europe in the 1800s From the Unification of Italy and Germany to the Foreign Policy of Bismarck Background After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, a trend to restore the old monarchy in Europe, as it existed prior to 1789, was witnessed...

Europe in the 1800s From the Unification of Italy and Germany to the Foreign Policy of Bismarck Background After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, a trend to restore the old monarchy in Europe, as it existed prior to 1789, was witnessed. There were three types of ideologies which were also prevalent in the 1800s:- 1. Conservative: Those who believed that monarchy must be restored with full and absolute powers 2. Liberal: Those who believed in moderate reforms with representation of people in the government. Most of the liberals were middle-class who were affluent people. 3. Radical: Those who called for drastic reforms so that the lower classes of the society can hold power and participate in governance. In the 1800s, these three ideologies clashed with each other. In the 1800s, the beginning of nationalism can be traced. Nationalism was the idea that the loyalty of a person should not be either to a king or empire, but to the nation. What was a nation? A nation consisted of a group of people living together in a geographical area with common language, culture and history. A nation-state was an independent entity having its own government. Nationalism had the capacity for two major scenarios:- 1. Unification: Nationalism unified some nations like those of Italy and Germany. 2. Separation: Nationalism also allowed people to claim a separate territory for their nation. For example, Greece in the 1800s. The three ageing empires of Habsburg Austria, Romanov Russia and Ottoman Turkey were faced with crises due to nationalism as they contained a mixture of ethnic groups with various demands. Hungary proclaimed independence from Austria and a dual system was formed which gave birth to the Austro-Hungarian empire. While, in Russia, the process of Russification began whereby a single monolithic culture was being imposed in Russia. Tsar Nicholas I, eventually, called the Ottoman Empire a ‘Sick man of Europe.’ Greek Independence (1821) The Greeks were one of the earliest people to claim independence from the Ottoman Empire in the 1800s based on nationalism. The Greeks were supported by Britain and France. The combined forces defeated the Ottomans in the battle of Navarino in 1827. The Treaty of Adrianople was signed in 1829 and by 1832, Greece was independent. Revolutions of 1848 In 1848, many revolutions broke out in Europe which were not connected with each other and were often spontaneous. Why did they happen? The main factor behind these revolutions was nationalism and the clash of ideologies. However, by 1849, revolutions were suppressed and the old order was restored. France After 1815, Louis XVIII (1815 - 24) ruled as a constitutional monarchy. In 1824, he was succeeded by Charles X (1824 - 30). In 1830, Charles X tried to hark back to absolute monarchy but failed and abdicated. After 1830, Louis Philippe ruled until the revolution of 1848 happened. This revolution exposed the weakness in France’s governance and therefore, Louis Philippe was overthrown and the Second Republic of France was established in 1848. A constitution was drawn up that called for an elected parliament and a strong President. In 1848, Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon, came back to France and won the Presidential elections. Soon, in 1852, he declared himself Emperor Napoleon III. He modernised France with industrialisation, railways, roads, etc. In 1871, he lost power after France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War. Unification of Italy (1850s - 1870) Italy, in 1848, was under the control of various powers with a great chunk under Austria. The most powerful kingdom in Italy was the Kingdom of Piedmont Sardinia whose king was Victor Emmanuel II. In 1852, Camillo di Cavour was appointed as the Prime Minister of Piedmont Sardinia. Due to nationalism, he aimed at unifying Italy under the leadership of Victor Emmanuel II. The process of unification began in the 1850s with the help of France against Austria. In 1866, the region of Venetia was taken over from Austria. Many of the city-states of Northern Italy were also unified. In southern Italy, the Kingdom of Sicily was dominant. Giuseppe Gari-baldi started the ‘Young Italy’ Movement to unify southern Italy. His followers were called ‘red shirts’ because of the red cap they wore. Gari-baldi handed over the regions to Victor Emmanuel II. The middle region of Italy now remained, which was that of the Papal states under the control of the Pope. In 1870, the Papal states were conquered and the unification was completed. Soon, Rome became the capital of unified Italy. Unification of Germany (1860s - 1871) After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, a German Confederation of 39 states was created, dominated by Austria. But, Prussia was positioned to unify these German states into one nation-state due to two main reasons:  1. Prussia had a large German population filled with nationalism. 2. Prussia had a very strong army In 1861, Wilhem I became the King of Prussia and in 1862, he appointed Otto Von Bismarck as his Prime Minister. Bismarck was the master of what was called realpolitik or the “politics of reality.” It was a German term which meant that politics was based on reality and not idealism. Bismarck believed that the unification of the 39 German states under Prussia was possible via ‘Blood and Iron' (basically, warfare). There were three steps in the unification of Germany. The first step was the war against Denmark in 1864. Prussia allied with Austria and declared war on Denmark. They conquered Schles-wig and Holstein. Prussia kept Schles-wig and Austria kept Holstein. The second step was the Seven Weeks’ War in 1866. Prussia deliberately created an issue with Austria on the control of Holstein. The two went to war in 1866 and in the end, Prussia won the war. It got control of most of the North and West German states. The third step was the Franco-Prussian War in 1871. Most of the southern German states were reluctant to join Prussia. Bismarck thought that if these states faced an external threat, they would look to Prussia for leadership. So, Bismarck altered a telegram by Wilhem I to France’s Napoleon III and added phrases insulting France. France reacted by declaring war on Prussia. Prussia fought and won the war and thereby, the southern states agreed to join Prussia. German states were now unified under Prussia. In January 1871, Wilhelm I of Prussia proclaimed himself as Kaiser in the Palace of Versailles and the newly unified German state was called the Second Reich. Foreign Policy of Bismarck (1871 - 1890) In 1861, Wilhem I became the King of Prussia and in 1862, he appointed Otto Von Bismarck as his Prime Minister. Bismarck was the master of what was called realpolitik or the “politics of reality.” It was a German term which meant that politics was based on reality and not idealism. Bismarck believed that the unification of the 39 German states under Prussia was possible via ‘Blood and Iron' (basically, warfare). This policy of ‘Blood and Iron’ can be understood through the foreign policy of Bismarck. What were the aims of Bismarck’s foreign policy? Satisfied Power post-1871 After the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, which was the final step in the unification of Germany, Bismarck declared that Germany was now a “satisfied power.” He declared that Germany would no longer engage in territorial expansion. On Land, Not Sea Bismarck was of the view that Germany was a continental power and not a colonial power. Since Germany was not engaged in the war for gaining colonies, Bismarck decided to focus mainly on the army and not the navy. Moreover, Bismarck did not want to alienate Britain by building a strong navy. Isolate France After the Franco-Prussian War of 1871, Germany gained two territories from France: Alsace and Lorraine. Bismarck believed that France would definitely try to take back these territories. Therefore, the main core of Bismarck's foreign policy was to alienate France by forging alliances with other European powers thereby isolating France.  Austro-Hungarian:- Since Austria was defeated by Germany in 1866, Bismarck tried to ensure friendly relations with them after 1871 so as to make sure that Austria does not ally with France. Russia:- Bismarck believed that Russia could act as a great friend and therefore, in 1881, he signed a treaty of friendship with Russia. Britain:- Bismarck adopted a policy of appeasement towards Britain by not building a navy that could stand at par with the British navy. What were the treaties that Bismarck signed as a part of his foreign policy? Three Emperors League (1873) Bismarck was keen on having peaceful relations with the Austro-Hungarian empire as well as Russia with the intention of isolating France. However, the Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia had a complicated relationship due to the Eastern Question. Therefore, to create an alliance amongst the three powers – Germany, Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia – Bismarck tried to establish peaceful relations between the Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia. The result was the Three Emperors’ League of 1873 or the Drie-kaiser-bund. This League continued to exist mainly from 1873 to 1887 after which Russia started to stray away from the League. The Dual Alliance (1879) The Balkan crisis or the Eastern Question meant that Bismarck was forced to choose between Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia. Bismarck chose the former. Why? Britain was more sceptical of Russia rather than the Austro-Hungarian empire. So, to ensure that Britain remained in favour of Germany, Bismarck supported the Austro-Hungarian empire. In the Berlin Congress of 1878, Bismarck supported the Austro-Hungarian empire and not Russia which annoyed Russia immensely. The result was the Dual Alliance of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian empire. It meant the end of the Drie-kaiser-bund, although they continued to have some meetings thereafter. Triple Alliance (1882) Italy was another potential country which Bismarck thought could be allied with Germany. Why Italy? One, Italy did not have good relations with France and therefore, Bismarck decided that it was a good opportunity to have Italy on their side and further isolate France. Two, Italy also did not have good relations with the Austro-Hungarian empire. This meant that the Austro-Hungarian empire was surrounded by two major enemies on either side – Russia and Italy. Hence, Bismarck acted as a mediator between them and forged a peaceful solution. The result was the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austro-Hungarian empire and Italy. Re-insurance Treaty (1887) Bismarck still wanted to avoid any alliance between Russia and France. Further, he also wanted to avoid any war between the Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia on account of the Eastern Question. Therefore, in 1887, Bismarck signed a Re-insurance Treaty with Russia to avoid the above two scenarios. What is the significance or critical estimate of Bismarck's foreign policy? Bismarck managed to forge alliances which were precarious as the ally nations often had huge differences amongst themselves. Yet, Bismarck managed to bring them under one umbrella. The Austro-Hungarian empire had complicated issues with both Russia and Italy. However, despite such differences, Bismarck created the Triple Alliance in 1882. Bismarck successfully managed to isolate France with its alliances. However, these alliances were responsible for dividing Europe into groups and laid the groundwork for the First World War (1914 - 17).