Chapter 2: The League of Nations and International Relations in the 1920s PDF

1 i Chapter 2 The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s...

1 i Chapter 2 The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s 49 Learning Objectives: In this chapter, you will: understand the difficulties associated with reaching agreement on, and implementing, the terms of the peace settlement at the end of the First World War learn why and how attempts were made to ease international tensions during the 1920s find out about the successes and failures of attempts to improve international relations during the 1920s analyse the creation, early development and effectiveness of the League of Nations during the 1920s. Timeline Aug 1924 The Dawes Plan Oct 1929 wall Oct 1917 Bolshevik Sept 1919 Treaty of Saint May 1921 Treaty formally ending the war between the USA and Street Crash Revolution in Russia Germain Germany Jan 1919 Opening of the Paris Peace Aug 1920 Treaty Apr 1922 Treaty of Rapallo Aug 1928 Kellogg- of Sévres (Germany and the USSR) Briand Pact Conference at Versailles 1922-23 Jan 1923 Jun 1919 Treaty Aug 1920 Treaty Aug 1929 The World French of Versailles of Trianon Young Plan Disarmament occupation of Conference the Ruhr Mar 1918 Treaty Nov 1919 Treaty 1921-22 Washington Oct 1925 Locarno of Brest-Litovsk Conferences Conference of Neuilly (Germany and Russia)  Cambridge International AS Level History - International History, 1870-1945 Before You Start 50 CQOPEAN Figure 2.1: 'European Baby Show', cartoon from The Detroit News 1919 Look carefully at Figure 2.1. Using the information in Chapter 1.4, discuss the following questions in pairs or small groups. Who is the main character depicted in the cartoon? What is the context of the cartoon? Why is the main character labelled as 'judge'? Why are European nations depicted as babies? Did the cartoonist believe that arranging a peace settlement at the end of the First World War would be easy? Explain your answer.  Chapter 2: The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s KEY TERMS Introduction The political effects of the First World War were Ratify: to give formal acceptance to something. For example, the diplomats negotiating at a conference can agree the terms devastating. The empires that had long dominated the of a treaty, but they do not come into effect until they have map of Central and Eastern Europe disintegrated, leaving been formally accepted (ratified) by their government. chaos and confusion. The tsarist regime was in Russia Communism: a system of government based on the idea of a overthrown by revolution became in 1917 and, as defeat classless society in which there is common ownership of the inevitable during 1918, the German emperor was forced means of production, such as farms and factories. It is very to abdicate. different from capitalism, under which individuals can become wealthy through the ownership of land, factories etc. Under these circumstances, those responsible for drawing up the treaties that would end the First World War faced American president, a very difficult task. Although the All countries were keen to avoid the horrors of another war, Woodrow Wilson, was determined to bring about a fair and many attempts were made to improve international and lasting peace, he met resistance from European relations during the 1920s, including the establishment of the who were equally determined to gain revenge politicians League of Nations. For a time, these seemed to be successful and ensure future security for their own countries. As a and were greeted with both enthusiasm and relief. However, result, the peace settlement that emerged between tensions continued to simmer beneath the surface. 1919 and 1920 consisted of harsh terms imposed by the on those that had been defeated. victorious nations 2.1 Why was there dissatisfaction Old tensions and rivalries remained, while many potential new ones were created. with the peace settlements of 1919-20? A lasting peace seemed even more unlikely when, despite encouragement by Wilson, the US Senate Key terms and implications of the peace 51 refused to ratify the settlement agreed at the Paris treaties (Versailles, Trianon, Neuilly, Saint Peace Conference. Instead, the USA reverted to its Germain, SEvreS traditional policy of isolationism, keeping out of foreign affairs as much as possible. Equally significant for future international stability was the fact that Russia, whose new As leader of the revolutionary government seemed determined to spread Russian Bolshevik communism as far as possible, was not invited to the Party, Lenin played peace talks and took no part in the negotiations for the a leading role in the treaties that would define the post-war world. October Revolution of 1917. He led the Party KEY TERMS to power, establishing a communist Tsarist regime: the political system which existed in Russia at government in Russia the beginning of the 20th century. All power lay in the hands of and was head of the the tsar, the official title of the Russian emperor. Although Tsar Russian state (later Nicholas II's power had been curtailed following a revolution in 1905, he retained almost total control over Russia until his the USSR) from 1917 abdication following a revolution in March 1917. until his death in 1924. The US Senate: the more powerful of the two 'houses' of the US Congress - the other being the House of Representatives. The USA can only enter into treaties with other countries with In January 1918, when US President Woodrow Wilson the approval of the Senate. outlined his vision for future world peace in his Fourteen Points speech (see Chapter 1.4), the First World War was still raging and its outcome remained far from clear. The new Russian leader, Lenin desperately trying to establish his , Bolshevik government, believed that it was essential for Russia to end its involvement in the First World War,  Cambridge International AS Level History - International History, 1870-1945 a war that was having a devastating effect on the Russian With Russia now out of the war, Germany no longer had to economy and its lower classes. Wilson had hoped his fight on two fronts. In addition, Germany had gained a vast speech would encourage Russia to remain in the war and, amount of new land and resources as a result of the Treaty at thesame time, urge Germany to seek a peace settlement. of Brest-Litovsk. This allowedGermany to launch a major Both hopes were dashed in March 1918 when Lenin's new offensive on the Western Front, and for a time it seemed as Bolshevik government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk though the Central Powers might secure victory after all. with Germany. The terms of the treaty were extremely harsh However, the Allies launched a major counter-offensive on Russia, and certainly not in line with Wilson's Fourteen that ran through the summer and autumn of 1918. Points. Russia was to lose Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, German supply lines had been over-extended during Ukraine, Georgia and Finland - areas containing much of their earlier offensive, and German troops were starved Russia's best farmland, raw materials and heavy industry. of food and vital equipment. Gradually, they were In the event, Russia lost 25% of its population, 25% of its driven back. Realising that the situation was becoming industry and 90% of its coal mines. hopeless, German military commanders decided to launch one last major naval battle against the British in the English Channel. They hoped this would prevent reinforcements and supplies reaching Allied troops in C) Europe. Convinced that this was a suicide mission for an already hopeless cause, the German sailors mutinied, and this sparked a wider revolution within Germany. Wilhelm II was forced into exile and formally abdicated on 28 November 1918. Germany became a republic 9 (referred to by historians as the Weimar Republic), and Norway the new government sought peace terms based on Finland 52 Wilson's Fourteen Points. Sweden In January 1919, representatives of nearly 30 victorious nations met at Versailles, near Paris. The aim of this Paris sto Peace Conference was to develop a settlement that Baltic tvi Russia would finally end the First World War and, in the words Sea of the French President Raymond Poincaré, 'prevent a recurrence of it'. This was no easy task. _Lith nia Germany Poland ACTIVITY 2.1 rest-L Discuss and make notes on the following questions in Ukraine pairs: Austria-Hungary a Explain two reasons why the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk helped Germany's war effort. Russian territory lost 1918 b German troops had caused extensive damage in 250 Romania France during the war. Even as they retreated in Black Sea 1918, they looted and destroyed much of Northern Giles France. How might this affect French public opinion Figure 2.2: Territory lost by Russia as a result of the Treaty about how Germany should be dealt with at the Paris of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in 1918 Peace Conference? c Do you think that Paris was an appropriate place to hold the peace conference? Explain your answer. d Only the victorious nations were invited to attend the Paris Peace Conference. What problems do you think this might cause?  Chapter 2: The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s First, events were taking place across *Europe over which the peacemakers had no control. Revolutions occurred Clemenceau was throughout the former Austro-Hungarian, Russian and a French politician Turkish empires. In Russia, the Bolsheviks were engaged who served as prime in war against other revolutionary parties and those a civil minister of France who were keen to restore the monarchy. The Western 1906-09 and 1917-20. powers, such as Britain and France, fearful of revolution in In line with French their own countries, provided some support to these anti- public and political Bolshevik groups. opinion, he insisted Under these circumstances, it was essential for on a harsh settlement decisions to be reached quickly. Inevitably, therefore, being imposed on decision making came to rest with the Council of Four, Germany at the Paris consisting of President Woodrow Wilson (USA), Prime Peace Conference. Minister David Lloyd George (Britain), Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau (France) and Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando (Italy). In reality, Italy had little influence. France, Clemenceau Orlando's inability to speak English greatly restricted his Clemenceau wanted to destroy Germany economically participation in negotiations. Moreover, once it became and He wanted to avenge France's humiliating militarily. clear that Italy would not receive all of its territorial claims, defeat in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), and gain Orlando temporarily withdrew the Italian delegation from revenge for the devastation that France had suffered the conference in anger. As a result, the main decisions as a result of German aggression in the First World War. were taken by the 'Big Three'. Moreover, he wanted to ensure that Germany could never Perhaps the most significant factor shaping the decision- again threaten French borders. In particular, Clemenceau 53 making process was the disagreements between Britain, wanted to secure a guarantee of British and American France and the USA over how the defeated Germany support in the eveni of any future German attack against should be treated. France. In his determination to inflict a harsh settlement on the Germans, Clemenceau lived up to his nickname - 'The Tiger'. UK, Lloyd George Lloyd George wanted a less severe settlement. It was in British interests that Germany, a potentially important consumer of British exports, be allowed to recover quickly. However, British public opinion was strongly 1 anti-German, and Lloyd George had just won an election on the promise that he would 'make Germany pay'. Britain therefore sought a settlement that would punish Germany while, at the same time, making its future economic recovery possible. The world's leading exporter in 1913, Britain had been overtaken by both the USA and Japan by 1919. Moreover, it has been estimated Figure 2.3: The Council of Four at the Paris Peace that the First World War cost Britain over E3.25 billion. Conference; from left to right - Lloyd George (Britain), Britain desperately needed to enhance its overseas Orlando (Italy), Clemenceau (France) and Wilson (USA). trade, and Germany provided a potentially lucrative This photograph was taken by Edward N. Jackson, Wilson's market for British exports. official photographer during the Paris Peace Conference. Does this information about the photographer change your interpretation of the photograph?  Cambridge International AS Level History - International History, 1870-1945 USA, Wilson ACTIVITY 2.2 (CONTINUED) whose country had suffered Wilson, far less severely Like Clemenceau, Lloyd George, Britain's Prime Minister, than its European allies during the war, wanted a lenient wanted to punish Germany for causing the war, but peace based on the Fourteen Points and his slogan 'peace agreed with Wilson that the punishment should not be without victory'. He believed that imposing a harsh treaty too severe. on Germany would cause resentment and make future This answer is based on sound knowledge, but it does conflict more likely. Wilson thought that the greed and not actually address the question. It describes how the selfishness of the rival European nations had been a major three men's opinions differed rather than explaining why. contributing factor to the outbreak of the First World War, and saw himself as a mediator between these nations. How would you adapt this answer in order to make it In truth, however, Wilson had very little understanding of more relevant to the demands of the question? the complex problems facing Europe in 1919. Moreover, he could no longer claim to fully represent the government KEY CONCEPT of the USA, as the Democrats had lost control of the Senate in the midterm elections. The war had become Historians seek to identify and analyse the ways in which people, either individually or in groups, respond to the increasingly unpopular in the USA. The Republican Party, circumstances confronting them. the political opponents of Wilson's Democratic Party, was strongly against American involvement in the Paris peace Similarity and difference talks, believing that these were essentially a European Look carefully at this question: matter. By the time Wilson arrived in Paris, the Republican Compare and contrast the views of Britain and France regarding how to deal with Germany at the Paris Party held a majority in the Senate. As the US politician Peace Conference. Theodore Roosevelt pointed out: 'Our allies and our 'Compare and contrast' questions require the identification enemies and Mr Wilson himself should all understand and explanation of similarities and differences. that Mr Wilson has no authority to speak for the American 54 Make a list of the similarities in the views of Britain people at this time.' and France. Make a list of the differences in the views of Britain Under these circumstances, it is perhaps unsurprising and France. that what emerged from the Paris peace talks bore only limited resemblance to Wilson's vision of a fair and In pairs, discuss your lists, making amendments where necessary. just settlement. Five separate treaties were agreed, Write an answer to the question. (Basic answers would each dealing with one of the First World War's defeated simply describe the similarities and differences. More nations (none of which was invited to the Paris peace effective answers would contain analysis - explaining why talks): the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, the Treaty Britain and France held their respective views.) of Saint-Germain with Austria, the Treaty of Neuilly with In pairs, discuss your answers, making any Bulgaria, the Treaty of Sévres with Turkey and the Treaty of appropriate amendments. Trianon with Hungary. ACTIVITY 2.2 The Treaty of Versailles Look carefully at the answer below to the The Germans fully expected a reasonable settlement following question: based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, a peace proposal that Why, in 1919, did Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd had been widely publicised since January 1918 and that George disagree about how best to treat the was popular with the anti-war movement in Germany. defeated Germany? German representatives were not allowed to take part in the peace negotiations, and when they were presented US President Wilson wanted a fair and just settlement with the Treaty of Versailles, they were horrified at the which was not too harsh on Germany. On the other hand, terms. Despite its objections, Germany had no alternative French Prime Minister Clemenceau, The Tiger, showed but to accept the treaty - failure to do so would have determination to inflict a harsh settlement on Germany. meant the continuation of war and an attack on Germany itself. In committing to a peace process, they had already abolished the monarchy and pulled back the army - they  Chapter 2: The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s were in no position to renew fighting. Germany signed the much of West Prussia went to Poland, allowing it Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919, in doing so accepting access to the sea through the 'Polish Corridor', dividing the loss of some 70,000 square kilometres (27,000 square Germany from its province of East Prussia miles) of land, containing some 7 million people: the port of Memel (modern Klaipéda) went to Lithuania Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, which Germany had Alsace and Lorraine returned to France gained through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, were Eupen and Malmédy went to Belgium established as independent states North Schleswig returned to Denmark Germany lost her African colonies, which became the Saar Valley, a heavily industrialised region, was to mandates under League of Nations supervision. be administered by the League of Nations for 15 years, during which France could use its coal mines: at the end KEY TERMS of this time, a plebiscite would determine whether it should belong to France or Germany Plebiscite: a referendum (vote) giving local people the opportunity to express their opinion for or against a proposal the Rhineland, part of Germany along its border with relating to a constitutional issue. France, was to be demilitarised, meaning that no troops Mandates: overseas territories taken from the defeated could be stationed there; this gave France the security countries at the end of the First World War. Responsibility for it so badly wanted, but meant that Germany would be these territories was passed to other countries, which would unable to defend this part of its border administer them on behalf of the League of Nations. Baltic Sea Denmark Northern Memel 55 Schleswig Danzig (free city under (to Lithuania) (to Denmark) League of Nations control) North Sea East Prussia Poznafi and the Polish Corridor (to Poland) Germany Poland Eupen-Malmédy (to Belgium) Upper Silesia (to Poland) Rhineland Saarland Czechoslovakia Alsace-Lorraine (to France) France Austria German losses to other countries German losses to the League of Nations km Areas retained by Germany after plebiscites o 100 Demilitarised zone 100 miles German frontier after Treaty of Versailles Figure 2.4: The European territory lost by Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles  Cambridge International AS Level History - International History, 1870-1945 For Germany, these territorial losses were both the resulting chaos. Their decisions formally confirmed economically devastating and politically humiliating. the existence of new national states - Yugoslavia, Poland, The country was geographically split in two by the 'Polish Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary - which became Corridor', had lost control of the major industrial region known as the successor states in the Saar and been forced to return the economically lucrative Alsace and Lorraine to France. Many German- KEY TERMS speaking people moved from areas that now came under Self-determination: the principle that people of common the control of other countries. Those who remained were nationality should have the right to form their own nations often persecuted for Germany's role in the war. and govern themselves. Wilson's definition of a 'nationality' In addition to these land losses, the treaty imposed (based on common language) was both too simplistic and inappropriate for the situation in Eastern Europe at the end of several other humiliating terms on Germany. German the First World War. armaments were limited to a maximum of 100 000 troops, Successor states: a newly formed state whose territory with no tanks, military aircraft or submarines, and a and population were previously under the sovereignty of maximum was intended to weaken of six battleships. This another state. Germany's armed forces so much that it could not pose a threat to other European countries in the future. For the same reason, Anschluss (union) between Germany and Each of the defeated nations was dealt with separately Austria was forbidden in an effort to prevent the two through a series of four treaties. German-speaking countries uniting. The Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed with Austria in A further devastating term of the Treaty of Versailles was September 1919. By the terms of this treaty, Austria lost: the 'War Guilt Clause'. This blamed Germany and its allies o Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia. for the outbreak of the First World War, and allowed the o Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina to Yugoslavia victorious nations to damage impose reparations for the o Bukovina to Romania 56 the war had caused. Imposing reparations on Germany o Galicia to.Poland was also intended to economically weaken the country so o Trentino, Istria, Trieste and parts of the South Tyrol that it could not threaten other countries in the future. to Italy. The Treaty of Neuilly was agreed with Bulgaria in KEY TERM November 1919. Bulgaria lost territory to Greece, Yugoslavia and Romania, had to reduce its army to no Reparations: money that one country has to pay another as compensation for war damage. The 'War Guilt Clause' more than 20 000 and was instructed to pay reparations was included in the Treaty of Versailles in order to provide of over $400 million. legal justification for making Germany pay reparations to the Under the terms of the Treaty of Sövres, signed in August victorious countries. 1920, Turkey lost territory to Greece and Italy. Other parts of the former Turkish Empire were mandated to France (Syria) and Britain (Palestine, Iran and Transjordan). The treaties of Trianon, Neuilly, Saint Germain The treaty also stated that the Dardanelles were to be and S&vres permanently open to all shipping. Under the leadership Having finalised the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, of Mustafa Kemal, the Turkish National Movement was the Paris Peace Conference now turned its attention established with the aim of overturning the terms of the to the other defeated nations (Austria-Hungary, Treaty of Sévres and expelling foreign soldiers from the Turkey and Bulgaria). In many ways, Wilson's notion country. Both had been achieved by October 1923 when of giving independence and self-determination to the newly formed Republic of Turkey was proclaimed, the peoples who formerly belonged to the Habsburg, with Kemal as its first president. Turkish and Russian empires was becoming a reality. The Treaty of Trianon with Hungary (August 1920) The disintegration of those empires had already stated that Slovakia and Ruthenia were to become part resulted in the emergence of new states. The Paris of Czechoslovakia. Hungary also lost Transylvania to peacemakers had the difficult task of trying to formalise Romania, and Croatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia.  Chapter 2: The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s These treaties reflected the collapse of the former ACTIVITY 2.3 Austro-Hungarian and Turkish Empires, but were also part of Wilson's idea of self-determination. Wilson's President Wilson had called for a 'peace without victory'. view of nationality was, however, based entirely on In pairs, discuss the reasons why the First World War's language and ignored other ethnic and religious defeated nations would have been disappointed and factors. As a result, for example, 1.6 million people angry about the outcomes of the Paris Peace Conference. who considered themselves to be Hungarian would What do you think were the possible implications of this? now be living under a foreign government in Romania. Make sure that your notes contain both (a) the reasons Moreover, concerns were raised that many of the for and (b) the implications of the defeated nations' newly created boundaries would make it impossible anger over the Paris peace settlement. for some countries, such as Austria and Hungary, to be economically viable. Reflection: Discuss your list of implications with a partner. Iceland Norway Finland Faroe Isles Sweden (Den) 57 Russian Socialist Sstonia Federative Soviet Republic Latvia Denmark ithuani Ireland United Kingdom of Great Britain Do Belarus and Northern Ireland Netherland Poland Belg um Germany Ukraine o Czechoslova a France Austria Hungary Swi erland Romania Kingdom o Serbs,Croats and Slovenes 2 Bulgaria Portugal Albania Italy Spain Turkey Greeceo 2 Cyprus Algeria Malta (I-JK) Tunisia Morocco Figure 2.5: A 1920 map Europe, showing the new national borders agreed in the peace settlements. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was broken up and the Ottoman Empire changed its name to Turkey. Nine new countries were created: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, KSCS, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland.  Cambridge International AS Level History - International History, 1870-1945 Reparations After lengthy debates, it was finally agreed at the Paris Peace Conference that reparations would indeed be This was the wording of Article 231 of the Treaty of imposed on Germany and the other defeated nations. The Versailles, and it is not difficult to see why it has become task of setting the actual amount that each country would known as the 'War Guilt Clause'. have to pay was designated to a Reparations Commission that would meet in 1921. It was already clear, however, The Allied and Associated Governments affirm and that most of the reparations requirements would be Germany accepts the responsibility of Germany imposed on Germany and Bulgaria. The Treaties of Saint- and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments Germain, Trianon and Sévres acknowledged that Austria, and their nationals have been subjected as a Hungary and Turkey had very limited resources and would consequence of the war imposed upon them by the find it difficult to pay reparations. aggression of Germany and her allies. When the Reparations Commission met in 1921 it considered the resources available to each of the defeated nations and took the views of their In signing the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was effectively accepting its own responsibility, and that of its allies, for representatives into account before determining how causing the First World War. much each country would have to pay. Considering the major economic problems facing Austria and Given the tensions that had gradually built up in Europe Hungary, no reparations were imposed on them. Limited during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and the reparations were imposed on Turkey, but these were complicated series of events that led to the outbreak of eliminated under the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne war in 1914, it may seem unreasonable to expect Germany in 1923. A figure of E 100 million was set for Bulgarian and its allies to accept full responsibility for it. The Germans reparations, only a fraction of which had been paid by themselves certainly thought so. However, there was a 1932 when the requirement was abandoned. 58 reason for the inclusion of the War Guilt Clause in the Treaty of Versailles. It provided some form of legal justification for expecting Germany and its allies to pay reparations. Keynes was the Germany's enemies had suffered greatly during the First leading economist of World War, both economically and in human terms. the early 20th century, France, in particular, demanded compensation. Most of and was a member of the war's major battles had taken place on French soil - the British delegation whole towns and villages were destroyed, and France's at the Paris Peace main industrial region in Nord-pas de Calais had been Conference. In his devastated. Reparations would facilitate reconstruction, book, The Economic both in France and in other countries, such as Belgium, Consequences of which had been so badly affected by the war. the Peace (1919), The issue of reparations caused further disharmony he argued that between the 'Big Three' at Versailles. Wilson was entirely reparations were vindictive and would opposed on the defeated nations, to inflicting reparations arguing that this would cause resentment and instil lead to problems because of Germany's inability a desire for revenge in Germany. Lloyd George, while to keep up with the payments. agreeing with the principle of reparations, wanted to keep them as low as possible so that the German economy As a result, the heaviest burden in terms of reparation could recover quickly and re-establish its trading links payments fell on Germany, which was instructed to pay with Britain. Clemenceau, whose country had suffered a total of f6.6 billion. The German representatives at most during the war, demanded that high reparations meetings of the Reparations Commission were horrified. be imposed on Germany. In addition to providing They argued that, with economy devastated the German compensation for war damage, Clemenceau viewed during the First World War, the country was in no position reparations as a way of keeping Germany weak so that it to meet such demands. They were not alone in their could never threaten France again. condemnation of such a high reparations demand.  Chapter 2: The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s The British economist John Maynard Keynes, who ACTIVITY 2.4 had attended the Paris Peace Conference, argued that reparations at such a high level would simply add to the Prepare notes on the following: economic problems facing post-war Europe. In particular, a Why was the War Guilt Clause included in the Treaty he argued that reparations would lead to high inflation. of Versailles? b Complete the table below, outlining the views of In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, Wilson, Lloyd George and Clemenceau regarding published in 1919, Keynes's was heavily critical of the reparations: include why they disagreed about the issue. Paris peace settlement: WILSON LLOYD CLEMENCEAU The settlement includes no provisions for the GEORGE economic rehabilitation of Europe, nothing to make the defeated Central Powers into good neighbours and nothing to stabilise the new states of Europe. It is an extraordinary fact that the fundamental economic problems ofa Europe, c On the issue of reparations, did Keynes agree with starving and disintegrating before their eyes, Wilson, Lloyd George or Clemenceau? Explain was the one question which it was impossible to your answer. arouse the interest of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson. Reparation was their main excursion into theeconomic field, and they settled it without Reactions of victors and defeated powers considering the economic future of the states Many historians are critical of the Paris peace settlement whose destiny they were handling. Clemenceau of 1919-20, which was to have major short- and long- was preoccupied with crushing the economic life of term effects on international They argue that stability. his enemy. the five treaties were based on a series of compromises 59 J. M. Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the that satisfied none of the countries involved. It was Peace (1919), pp. 211-1 representatives of the First World War's victorious nations which met in Paris to draw up the peace terms. The defeated nations, not allowed to attend the peace conference, simply In terms of reparations, Clemenceau's demands had had to accept the terms imposed upon them. While this held sway. Keynes's prediction that German reparations inevitably led to resentment, the defeated nations were not would cause economic problems in Europe was to prove alone in expressing their frustration and anger at the peace correct. So too were President Wilson's fears that imposing settlement. France, Russia, Italy and the USA, countries that reparations on Germany would lead to resentment and had played a significant role in the Allied Powers' eventual the desire for revenge. victory in the First World War, were also disappointed. KEY TERM France had wanted and expected a much harsher settlement imposed on Germany. Indeed, Clemenceau had Inflation: a process that leads to an increase in the price of argued for the creation of an independent Rhineland state, goods and services. It drives down the value of income and and proposed that Germany be broken up to permanently savi ngs, discouraging investment and causing demands weaken it. Fear that the settlement left Germany strong for increased wages. This, in turn, leads to higher prices, an inflationary spiral that can then result in increased enough, both economically and politically, to once again unemployment. threaten the sec urity of France was to dominate French foreign policy throughout the 1920s. Russia was not invited to send representatives to the peace conference and was not consulted at all about the terms of the settlement. France and Britain argued that, having withdrawn from the First World War by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Russia had no right to attend the conference. Moreover, fearful of revolution spreading, the Western powers refused to have any diplomatic relations  Cambridge International AS Level History - International History, 1870-1945 were killed and 950 000 seriously wounded. The Italian with Russia's Bolshevik government. This left Russia feeling government spent more in the three years of war than increasingly isolated, much of its former territory divided it had in the previous 50. Once the war was won, the up amongst newly created nations, including the Baltic Italian people expected the promises made in the Treaty states of Lithuania and Estonia. of London to be honoured. To the majority of Italians, its membership of the Triple Alliance alongside Despite the Paris peace settlement was a bitter disappointment. Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy did not enter the First The major decisions were taken by the 'Big Three', Wilson, World War when it began in 1914. However, in April 1915, Clemenceau and Lloyd George. The Italian delegation, Italy signed the Treaty of London with Britain in return led by Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando, had been largely for promises of major territorial gains along the Adriatic ignored and humiliated. Although Italy had gained coast once victory was achieved. Italy thus joined the Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria and Trieste, its claims to parts war on the side of the Triple Entente - Britain, France and of Dalmatia, Albania, Fiume, Adalia (Antalya on the south Russia. Italy's involvement in the war, while not particularly Turkish coast) and some of the Aegean islands had been significant militarily, was to prove expensive, both in denied. To the Italians, it appeared that other countries, human and financial terms. Over 600 000 Italian soldiers particularly Yugoslavia, had gained at Italy's expense. Switzerland South Tyro Trento iza iume I ria Pola 00 60 Gulf of Za Bosnia Genoa n Ancona Sebarnl Montenegro OQÖ c Naples Brindisi Valo a Tyrrhenian Gulf of Sea Taranto Italy Pre-1914 SOO a Territory promised under Territory actually ceded to 1915 Treaty of London Italy 1919-20 o Disputed City of Fiume (ceded to Italy, 1924) Territory occupied by Italy, 1914-20 Figure 2.6: Territory promised to Italy under the terms of the Treaty of London 1915  Chapter 2: The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s US president Woodrow Wilson had plqyed a leading role in colonies in Africa were effectively taken over by Britain, determining the terms of the Paris peace settlement, and France and South Africa made strenuous efforts to convince the American people who were German in terms of their millions of people to support them. However, public opinion in the USA language and culture would now be living under foreign was largely opposed to the settlement. Many Americans rule in countries such as Poland and Czechoslovakia believed that its terms were too harsh on Germany and although part of Germany, East Prussia was separated that this would cause resentment and encourage the desire from the rest of the country by the Polish Corridor for revenge. Most argued that to support the settlement the War Guilt Clause caused particular resentment in and, in particular, to join the League of Nations, would Germany given the complicated series of events that inevitably involve the USA in future wars. The US Senate, had led to the outbreak of war in 1914 dominated by Wilson's Republican political opponents, the amount established for reparations was extremely refused to ratify the peace settlement, and the USA high and, as the Germans would argue, virtually subsequently signed its own separate treaty with Germany. impossible for them to repay. For the First World War's defeated nations, the implications of the peace settlement were far worse. These harsh terms led to widespread anger in Germany. To the Bulgarians, their country much reduced in size and One German newspaper declared: its economy severely damaged, the settlement was seen as a national catastrophe. Turkey no longer controlled In the place where, in the glorious year of 1871, its once great Ottoman Empire and remained under the theGerman Empire in all its glory had its origins, authority of an Allied army of occupation. todayGerman honour is being carried to its grave. Do not forget it! The German people will, with Austrians and Hungarians alike were angered by the way unceasing labour, press forward to reconquer the in which the Paris peace settlement had divided up the place among the nations to which it is entitled. territories of the former Habsburg Empire between newly Then come vengeance for the shame of 1919. will 61 formed nation They argued that the First World War's states. Deutsche Zeitung, 28 June 1919 victorious nations had created new boundaries without regard to cultural, linguistic and ethnic factors. Austrian These views were clearly shared by a leading German and Hungarian requests that plebiscites should be held to politician, who informed the Reichstag (German determine the wishes of local people had been ignored. parliament) in 1919: The terms of the Treaty of Versailles caused great In these conditions, there is no trace ofa peace of resentment in Germany, resentment that was to have understanding and justice. It is purely a peace of major implications for the future. German objections violence which, for our Fatherland, is thinly veiled focused on two main issues. First, German representatives slavery, and out of which will result not peace for were not allowed to attend the peace talks - they simply the whole of Europe, but merely further bloodshed had to accept whatever terms were imposed upon them. and tears. Second, the terms were not based entirely on Wilson's Prime Minister of the Prussian Diet Paul Hirsch, Fourteen Points as Germany had hoped. quoted in Ille Times, 12 May 1919 There is some justification for German objections to the Treaty of Versailles: However, although the terms were harsh, they were not as severe as Clemenceau had hoped. The French were at a time of intense political instability, 100 000 troops might not be sufficient even to maintain law and order concerned that the treaty left Germany strong enough to rebuild for the future and, once again, pose a threat to within Germany itself, let alone defend the country their security. Germany's territorial losses in Europe were against external attack; moreover, while Germany was forced to disarm, it was clear that none of the other restricted to those areas it had gained as a result of previous major European powers had any intention of doing wars. Indeed, Germany remained potentially the strongest so - this posed a threat to German security economic power in Europe. Many have argued that, having ignored Wilson's Fourteen Points when inflicting the Treaty although they were set up as mandates under the of Brest-Litovsk onGermany had little right to expect Russia, supervision of the League of Nations, Germany's former those points to form the basis of their own peace settlement. Cambridge International AS Level History - International History, 1870-1945 ACTIVITY 2.5 KEY TERM How justified were German objections to the Treaty of Dictator: an absolute ruler who controls a country without Versailles? Complete the table below and remember being accountable to an electorate or an elected national assembly, and with no limits to their power set by a these key points: constitution. remain fully focused on the precise needs of the question throughout - be careful to avoid unfocused narrative (i.e., providing factual information that does Bordering Italy, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, not make a relevant point) Greece and Albania, Yugoslavia became involved in ensure that your answer is balanced - that you show territorial disputes. In an effort to protect itself, Yugoslavia understanding of both sides of the argument made a series of friendly agreements with other countries. make a clear and supported judgement - on balance, In the early 1920s, for example, it formed the 'Little were German objections justified or not? Entente' with Czechoslovakia, Romania and France. JUSTIFIED UNJUSTIFIED In 1924, it joined an alliance with Greece, Romania and Turkey. Despite these agreements, Yugoslavia remained a weak and vulnerable country. With backward agricultural methods and limited industry, Yugoslavia became heavily dependent on Western loans. Problems in 'successor states' created by the Poland post-war settlements After more than a century of being partitioned by foreign powers, such as Germany and the Habsburg and Russian Maintaining a commitment to self-determination was not Empires, Poland re-emerged as an independent nation in as straightforward as Wilson had envisaged. His belief November 1918. The Paris Peace Conference confirmed that nationality could be determined by language was too Poland's independence in June 1919. Of Poland's simplistic for the complicated situation in Eastern Europe, population of 27 million, fewer than 18 million were Poles where there were so many ethnic groupings, all with and more than I million were German. These statistics, conflicting ambitions. In redrawing the map of Eastern together with the fact that there were 14 political parties Europe, the peacemakers had left around 30 million in the country, meant that attempts to maintain true people living in minority groups under foreign rule, making democracy led to weak and unstable governments. border disputes inevitable. The 'successor states' that In 1926, J6sef Pilsudski led a military coup and established emerged as a result of the break-up of the great European himself as dictator. empires all suffered similar difficulties in the immediate post-war years. These problems were caused by the Border disputes were to bring Poland into conflict with multinational composition of their populations, border Germany, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania and Russia. Polish disputes, economic difficulties and political instability. leaders wanted to extend Poland's territory beyond that which had been agreed at the Paris Peace Conference, in Yugoslavia particular by gaining control over Ukraine and Lithuania, Yugoslavia, formally established in December 1918, was areas that had been part of Poland prior to its partition made up of the previously independent kingdoms of in the 18th century, when they came under the control of Serbia and Montenegro, together with territory that had Russia. In 1919, Polish troops entered Ukraine. Their initial been part of the Habsburg Empire. It became home to success was halted by a Russian counter-offensive in 1920, people of varying ethnic and religious backgrounds — and, for a time, it seemed as though Poland would be Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Slovenes, Magyars, Germans, utterly defeated. However, Polish forces were able to defeat Albanians, Romanians and Macedonians, Orthodox and the Russians at the Battle of Warsaw and resumed their own Roman Catholic Christians, Jews and Muslims. In this offensive. The war between Poland and Russia was ended situation, religious and ethnic disputes were inevitable by the Treaty of Riga (1921), which added a strip of land and developing effective democratic institutions was some 160 km (100 miles) wide to Poland's eastern border. virtually impossible. In 1929, the king, Alexander l, banned all political parties and proclaimed himself dictator.  Chapter 2: The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s time, Hungarian troops invaded Czechoslovakia with the Czechoslovakia The Czechoslovak First Republic emerged from the aim of extending Hungary's borders. When, due to French collapse of the Habsburg Empire in October 1918, and intervention, Hungarian forces