App Social Psych Midterm PDF
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Wilfrid Laurier University
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This document appears to be notes for a social psychology midterm. It includes information on practical theories, mechanisms of behavior, steps that lead to changes in behavior and the goals of social psychology.
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Practical Theories Goal of psychological science: 1. Describe/Observe 2. Predict 3. Identify cause-effect 4. Explain mechanism echanism:underlying psychological process or systemthat explains how a particular social M behavior or phenomenon occurs, ess...
Practical Theories Goal of psychological science: 1. Describe/Observe 2. Predict 3. Identify cause-effect 4. Explain mechanism echanism:underlying psychological process or systemthat explains how a particular social M behavior or phenomenon occurs, essentially detailing the "how" behind a social interaction, often involving cognitive factors, emotions, and social norms that influence individual behavior within a social context sychological Process:a series of steps that causechanges in a person's thoughts, P emotions, or behaviors. These processes are the mechanisms that allow people to take in information, react, and behave (examples: sensation, perception, attention, memory) Goals of social psychology: . 1 irect/observe D 2. Predict 3. Identify cause-effect 4. Explain mechanism 5. Control/intervene pplied social psych: identify and test interventions based on evidence. Intervention often acts A on the psychological mechanism. Focus on individuals and groups. In lab and field. Theory set of ideas that can help to explain/predict certain outcomes or patterns of behaviour and A predict. Help explain observable patterns in behaviour in systematic ways - Organize: all observations about test preparation behaviours - Direct: guide a search for more evidence - Intervene: identify and implement new study behaviours Scientific Process Induction:moving from specific observations to general theories eduction:Moving from D general theories to specific hypotheses ypothesis:A prediction H that specifies a directional relationship between two or more variables necdotal evidence:can sometimes begin with this(personal examples not systematic A observations). Something in the world makes you puzzled and want to understand. Limitations are that when more people are present, the less likely someone is to help (bystander effect) - Bystander effect helps guide the scientific process Characteristics of Psychological Theories cope:Some theories explain a specific type of behaviourone capacity or multiple (high or low S scope. (# of behvaiours explained) alsifiability/testability:can it be tested and refuted?Unfalsifiable theories: mental illness F stems from childhood experience arsimony:A theory is good if it is as simple asit can be but needs to explain the P phenomenon. Example: prof turning off the lights. Parsimony explanation is that she turned off the lights but another explanation is that the power went off at the exact same time that she went to turn off the light ange or Generalizability:Universal to humans orlimited to certain groups, cultures, genders, R ages, personalities - W.E.I.R.D participants: Western Educated Industrialized Democratic - We know a lot about people in these contexts - Mostly tested on psychology students - e have psychological knowledge but we are not generating universal knowledge (does W not account for different cultures, contexts, genders etc) - We learn a lot less about people with different psychological interests - No external validity - Example of an implication: A study on healthy marriage initiative interventions - Data was collected from educated, white, higher-income families yet most divorces come from different demographics (lower-income, less educated etc) Generating/testing theory of student helplessness: Attribution theory ttribution Theory:A set of related theories dealingwith the way individuals perceive/explain A the causes of behaviour (their own and others) ( asking “why”)Not about identifying the causes of an outcome but the interpretation of the causes Example: Doing bad on a test (what were some of the things that made you do bad?) Key intervention: if attributes are made to ability students conclude that they can not change it but when it is attributed to effort they conclude that it can be improved How did it help? - Helped us organize observations, research findings - Gave us direction: stimulated thinking about other factors that might be important in determining reaction to failure - Served as a guide to intervention: helped us think of what some of the key elements of an intervention might be Can it be applied to broader contexts?- Yes - Crime and deviance: Application: In criminology, attribution theory helps explain how people attribute criminal behavior to internal (dispositional) or external (situational) factors. Example: A judge may see a repeat offender as inherently "criminal" (internal attribution), while a sociologist might emphasize poverty and lack of opportunity (external attribution) ttribution Retraining:A therapeutic technique thathelps people change how they explain A events and behaviors - Growth mindset (intelligence is changeable through effort and different strategies Powerful Tools Common sense:Emphasize the problems severity andprevalence to motivate change - Will emphasizing the prevalence of a problem reduce the behavior? - No - Example: think of the littering or sign saying not to steal the wood- leads to more people stealing the wood orm Theory:people often misperceive the attitudesand behaviors of others in their group, N believing them to be different from their own, leading individuals to adjust their behavior to align with what they think is the "norm" within that group, even if it's not actually the case - Descriptive: what most people do/ what is normally done - injunctive : Consensus about what you should do/ what is normally approved in society common sense might result in backfire (e.g., intervention attempts that led to more littering). roblem with Psychology: Sometimes findings seemlike common sense. Hindsight bias: P results seem far more obvious after the answer is known - Example: the sign telling people not to steal actually encourages people to steal Variable:a property of a person, object or an eventthat can vary in quantity or quality onstruct:the conceptual or hypothetical explanatoryvariable or latent variable that can not be C directly observed. Example: love, happiness, interest, morality, power perational definition or operationalization:Translatethis construct into a meaningful O measure (example: how do you operationally define ‘power”) onstruct Validity:does the operationalization providea valid measure of the variable of C interest. Example: intelligence tests should accurately measure cognitive ability Internal Validity:the extent to which a researchercan make a causal claim about the relationship between different variables xternal Validity:the degree to which the resultsof a study can be applied to other situations, E people, or groups - generalizability cological Validity:a measure of how well the findingsof an experiment can be applied to E real-world situations perationalizing descriptive norms:measuring howpeople perceive what others in their O group do - Voting example: What is the dependent variable? And how do we operationalize it? DV’s: - Intentions to vote (behavioural intention) - Get actual vote records - Follow up phone call to see if they voted - Voter turnout by region Feasibility and Ethics in experimental designs: - Deception (can only occur is debriefing is possible) - “First do no harm” principle (limits testing of possibly detrimental conditions - Delivering different benefits-deny the control group helpful treatment - Wait-list control group: randomly assign people to treatment and control groups, offer intervention in a second wave or at the end of the study period ynamic normis information about how a behavior ischanging over time. Dynamic norms can D encourage people to change their behavior, even if the current social norm is different orrelational studies:involves measuring variablesand determining the association between C them (assessed by correlation coefficient. Can range from -1 to 0 to +1. Correlation does not imply causation rue Experimental Design:Helps us better understandcause (IV) and effect (DV). Involves T manipulation of an independent variable. Random assignment of research participants to onditions. Treatment group and a control group. Extraneous variables can arise and those are c other variables that you are not intentionally studying uasi-experimental designs:Often unethical to randomlyassign each research participant to Q different experimental conditions - IV may occur naturally or be manipulated (not always by experimenter) - Lacks random assignment - May or may not have control/comparison group (but non-equivalent because it is not randomly assigned) - No causal conclusions - Extraneous variables It can: - Deliver an intervention to entire group, DV measured before and after intervention (pretest-posttest design) - Cant feasibly randomly assign each person separately-can randomly assign in chunks (example walking path randomly assigned to be clean on some days and littered on other days - Existing groups that can not be randomly assigned - Example: School bullying intervention - Pre-existing groups with specific characteristics (example state that legalizes cannabis vs states that do not) - Interrupted time series design: examine the impact of that intervention by comparing trends in the data before and after the interruption (the intervention) occurred - Nonequivalent control group: assignment to group is not random Threats to Validity: epeated testing: the act of taking a test multiple times can influence the results of subsequent R tests, potentially obscuring the true effect of the intervention being studied, rather than the intended variable itself aturation: the possibility that natural changes occurring within participants over time, like M aging, learning, or fatigue, could influence the study results and make it difficult to attribute observed changes solely to the experimental manipulation, thus undermining the internal validity of the study egression to the mean: when participants are selected based on extreme scores on a pre-test, R their subsequent scores will naturally tend to move closer to the group average (mean), making it difficult to attribute any observed change solely to the intervention being studied, potentially misleading the results and impacting the internal validity of the research Instrument change:if the way you are measuring something changes over time, it can be difficult to attribute any observed differences to the intended variable being studied, rather than the change in measurement itself escriptive Studies:Want to see what happens within the world. When things are happening D in a certain way this can indicate something that we may want to study. No hypothesis and do not need to see if x causes y ualitative Research:a method of gathering and analyzingnon-numerical data to understand Q people's beliefs, attitudes, and motivations onfounds:A confound (confounding variable) is anuncontrolled variable that systematically C varies with the independent variable (IV), making it difficult to determine whether the IV truly caused the observed effect. Example: If studying the effect of exercise on stress, but participants in the exercise group also eat healthier, diet could be a confound. esentful Demoralization:When participants in acontrol group become discouraged after R realizing they are not receiving the treatment, leading to reduced effort or motivation. Example: In a study testing a new teaching method, students in the control group (who get traditional instruction) might feel discouraged and perform worse than usual. ifferential Attrition:When participants drop outof a study at different rates across D experimental conditions, potentially biasing the results. Example: If a weight loss study has a high dropout rate in the control group (because they don’t see results), the remaining control participants may be systematically different from the original group, skewing comparisons. iffusion (or Contamination) of Treatment:When participantsin different conditions interact D and share information, causing the control group to unintentionally adopt elements of the treatment. Example: In a workplace productivity study, employees in the control group might hear about new efficiency strategies from the experimental group and start using them, blurring the treatment effect. xperimenter Bias:When a researcher’s expectationsunintentionally influence the study’s E results. Example: If a psychologist unconsciously treats participants in the experimental group more warmly, it may improve their performance, rather than the treatment itself. emand Characteristics:When participants guess thestudy’s purpose and change their D behavior accordingly. In a study on generosity, participants might act more generously because they suspect that’s what the researchers want to see. istory (Historical Effects):When external eventsoccurring during a study influence the H results. Example: A study on mental health interventions conducted right before and during the COVID-19 pandemic may show major changes in stress levels, but those changes could be due to the pandemic, not the intervention. ualitative Research Q ✔ Explores experiences, meanings, and social processes ✔ Non-numerical (interviews, focus groups, observations) ✔ Strengths: rich insights, context, flexibility ✔ Limitations: subjective, hard to generalize, time-consuming ✔ Use when: studying new topics, social constructs, deep meanings uantitative Research Q ✔ Measures numerical data for patterns and relationships ✔ Uses surveys, experiments, statistics ✔ Strengths: objective, generalizable, precise analysis ✔ Limitations: may ignore context, oversimplify issues, needs large samples ✔ Use when: testing hypotheses, measuring trends, studying large groups Mixed Method Research ✔ One method alone isn’t enough ✔ Need both context (qual) and statistics (quant) ✔ Triangulating data increases validity andom (Probability) Sampling (Survey/Quantitative) R ✔ Every individual in the population has an equal chance of selection ✔ Reduces bias, increases generalizability ✔ Used in surveys, experiments andom Assignment (Experimental/Quantitative) R ✔ Participants are randomly placed in treatment or control groups ✔ Ensures groups are comparable, improves internal validity ✔ Used in experiments to test causal relationships urposive Sampling (Qualitative) P ✔ Selects participants based on specific characteristics or expertise ✔ Ensures rich, in-depth data ✔ Used in case studies, interviews, ethnography alue of a Multi-Method Approach V ✔ Combines strengths of qualitative (depth) & quantitative (generalizability) ✔ Provides triangulation (cross-validation of findings) ✔ Enhances validity, reduces bias ✔ Useful when a single method is insufficient ight Touch Interventions:small, low-cost changesthat can encourage people to change their L behavior. Example: power poses - Can include nudges: Trying to get kids from low income families to get their parents to register them for Pre-K so they sent text reminders - Strengths: Low-cost, preserves individual choice, easy to implement - Limitations:May not create lasting change, shiftsresponsibility to individuals - isk:Can make the problem seem minor or a personal responsibility (e.g., obesity R framed as individual choice vs. systemic food deserts) eavy Handed Interventions: large structural or programmaticchanges. Example: Perry H Preschool - Strengths: Stronger enforcement, can create systemic change, more effective in modifying behavior - Limitations: Can be seen as restrictive, may face resistance, harder to implement I-Frame (Individual Change)– Focuses on changingindividual behavior (e.g., exercise apps, self-help resources) S-Frame (Systemic Change)– Focuses on changing policies,environments, and institutions ( e.g., affordable healthcare, improving access to healthy food) xcessive I-Frame Focus:Can ignore systemic issues(e.g., telling individuals to "work harder" E instead of addressing economic inequality) - Value of Both: - I-frame can provide short-term fixes (e.g., therapy for stress) - S-frame addresses root causes (e.g., reducing workplace exploitation to lower stress) ight Touch Works Best When:Behavior change is small,nudging is enough (e.g., seatbelt L reminders) eavy Hand Needed When: Structural barriers preventchange, or harm is severe (e.g., H workplace safety laws) alance Matters:Sometimes a band-aid is necessary,but we should still address the root B cause to prevent future harm efinition of Intervention:An intervention is a plannedeffort to improve a situation, modify D behavior, or address a social, health, or educational issue. ypes of Interventions T Personal Interventions – Individual-level changes (e.g., therapy, coaching, habit change). Programmatic Interventions (Programs) – Structured initiatives aimed at a group or community to create social or behavioral change (e.g., public health campaigns, school programs). efinition of a Program:A program is a structuredset of activities designed to achieve specific D objectives and goals to address a social, educational, or health issue. Five Steps of the Intervention Process Identify the Problem - Define the issue and target population - Conduct needs assessment (gather data on the problem’s scope, impact, and affected groups) - Engage stakeholders (e.g., policymakers, community members, experts) Find a Solution - Review existing research (systematic review) to determine what has worked - Consider theoretical frameworks Identify 4Ps: - Precipitating factors (triggers of the issue) - Perpetuating factors (maintain the issue) - Predisposing factors (increase vulnerability) - Protective factors (reduce risk) Set Goals & Design the Program - Goals: Broad, long-term outcomes - Objectives: Specific, measurable steps toward achieving goals - Use S.M.A.R.T. objectives (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) - Develop Intervention Hypothesis (the expected effect of the program) Implement the Program - Secure resources (funding, staff, technology) Develop activities based on the program logic model: - Resources → Inputs like staff, funding, facilities - Activities → What will be done (e.g., training, workshops) - Objectives → Measurable intermediate steps - Goals → Long-term desired outcomes - Theory of Change → How program activities lead to intended change Evaluate the Program - Did it affect the outcome? (Was there a measurable change?) - Did the change occur because of the program? (Causal impact analysis) Types of Evaluation: - Outcome/Summative Evaluation – Did the program work? - Process Evaluation – Did it reach the target audience? Was it implemented correctly (fidelity, reach, dosage)? - Developmental Evaluation – Adjusting the program in real time based on feedback - Economic Evaluation – Cost-effectiveness of the intervention ractical Considerations in Implementation P ✔ Budget – Costs of staff, materials, facilities ✔ Staffing – Training and capacity of personnel ✔ Agency Support – Organizational commitment ✔ Communications – Outreach and engagement strategies ✔ Facilities – Location, accessibility, and infrastructure rogram Failure & Ethical Considerations P Reasons Interventions Fail ❌ Scared Straight & DARE Example – Increased delinquency/substance use instead of reducing it ❌ Reactance – Resistance when people feel forced to change ❌ Stigmatization – Labeling groups negatively instead of helping ❌ Inadequate Theory/Unreliable Research – Poor evidence base for intervention ❌ Small or Trivial Effects – Not impactful enough to justify resources ❌ Non-Generalizable (WEIRD Populations, Cultural Clash) – Works only in certain groups but not broadly ❌ Other Supports Withdrawn – Assuming a program replaces broader systemic needs ❌ Poor Implementation – Low fidelity, insufficient dosage, poor reach thics & Evaluation E ✔ Effectiveness – Does it achieve meaningful change? ✔ Accountability – Justifies funding and resource use ✔ Resource Management & Opportunity Costs – Ensures the best use of limited resources ✔ Social Policy & Transparency – Ensures interventions align with ethical standards and public interest ✔ Ethical Dilemmas & Conflicts of Interest – Avoiding bias, ensuring participant safety udgges:example of a nudge talked about in classis the train in india or putting the produce at N the front of the grocery store where the junk food typically is to promote healthy eating Traditional Economics - Assumes rational decision-making (maximize utility). - Assumes perfect self-control and willpower. - People always make optimal choices when given full information. - More options = better decisions. Behavioral Economics - Assumes irrationality, influenced by biases and emotions. - Recognizes self-control failures (e.g., procrastination). - People use heuristics (mental shortcuts), leading to suboptimal choices. - Choice overload can cause decision fatigue. xamples of Nudges E ✔ Opt-out organ donation (default = more participation). ✔ Healthy foods at eye level in cafeterias. ✔ Social norm messaging (“90% of your neighbors recycle”). ✔ Graphic warning labels on cigarettes. hoice Architecture C ✔ How choices are presented influences behavior. ✔ Example: Placing fruit before desserts in cafeterias to encourage healthy choices. ey Features of Nudges K ✔ Preserve freedom of choice (not a mandate). ✔ Use behavioral insights to improve decisions. ✔ Low-cost and easy to implement. ✔ Work with human biases, not against them. Common Nudge Principles 5 Defaults – People stick to pre-set options. xample: Auto-enrollment in retirement savings plans. E Simplify/Make Convenient (Reduce Friction) – Easier processes = more action. xample: Pre-filled tax forms increase compliance. E Increase Friction (At Other Times) – Make undesirable choices harder. xample: Two-step verification for online purchases prevents impulsive spending. E Norms (Social Influence) – Show what others are doing. xample: “Most hotel guests reuse their towels” reduces waste. E Pre-Commitment Strategies – Encourage people to commit in advance. Example: Gym memberships with scheduled sessions increase attendance ise Interventions:begin with a psychological theorywhich informs creation of a precise tool W or exercise to change a specific psychological process in a real-world setting - Precision often allows small to be effective - Often affects only those who need the shift in meaning making Incorporates recursionL often one time interventions dissipate over time. Interventions with recursive dynamics are designed to be repeatedly triggered by the environment and build over time (snowball effect) (sees how something unfolds in time- benefit) Conditions that affect the effectiveness of Wise Interventions . P 1 rocess it targets must matter in the setting at hand 2. Targeted psychological process must be effectively changed (active vs passive, “saying is believing”) and not be understood as remedial 3. Timing Matters: long-term outcomes only critical recursive processes are altered eg brief school interventions- start of the year vs later? 4. Often requires structural/material resources to be available to support the intervention ise interventions (reported in media) could make problem seem easy to fix (and put all W responsibility on the victim to fix the problem) – should often be paired with emphasis on structural change (e.g., fair distribution of resources) What are the factors to consider when designing a successful wise intervention? ✔ Psychological Process Matters: Target a meaningful psychological process relevant to the population. ✔ Active Participation: Participants should make their own meaning, not just receive info. ✔ Timing: Intervene before patterns become ingrained. ✔ Resources & Structural Support: Ensure external support systems are in place for chang Norms as an Intervention Strategy ✔Social Norms Marketing Approach C urrent Norms: Research and identify existing socialnorms. Target Behavior: Choose a behavior to change basedon impact, probability, and market opportunity. Target Audience: Evaluate size, readiness, and reachabilityof the audience. Barriers/Benefits: Identify obstacles and benefitsto changing behavior. 4Ps: ○ Place: Where will the intervention occur? ○ Price: What is the cost or effort for the behaviorchange? ○ Product: What behavior or action is being promoted? ○ Promotion: How will the behavior be marketed? xample: E A campaign to reduce plastic use by promoting reusable bags: Current Norm: People often use plastic bags. arget Behavior: Switch to reusable bags. T Target Audience: Shoppers in areas with high plasticbag use. Barriers: Cost of reusable bags, habit. Benefits: Environmental impact, long-term savings. 4Ps: ○ Place: Supermarkets and retail stores. ○ Price: Affordable reusable bags. ○ Product: Reusable shopping bags. ○ Promotion: Discounts for using reusable bags. 7 Principles of Persuasion 1. R eciprocity: People are more likely to do somethingif they feel they are receiving something in return. ○ Example: Free samples in stores lead to higher sales. 2. Scarcity: People value what is scarce more highly. ○ Example: Limited-time offers or products in shortsupply. 3. Authority: People are more likely to follow advicefrom credible experts. ○ Example: Medical endorsements in health product ads. 4. Consistency: People are more likely to act in a waythat is consistent with their past behaviors or commitments. ○ Example: Getting people to publicly commit to a causemakes them more likely to follow through. 5. Liking: People are more likely to be influenced bythose they like. ○ Example: Celebrity endorsements for products. 6. Consensus: People are more likely to do somethingif they believe others are doing it too (social proof). ○ Example: "Join the millions of satisfied customers"in advertisements. 7. Unity: People are more likely to be persuaded by thosethey feel are part of their group or community. ○ Example: Campaigns that emphasize shared values oridentities (e.g., environmental movements). Nudges & Persuasion Principles Nudges often incorporate these principles to subtly influence behavior without restricting choice: eciprocity: Offer small rewards or incentives. R Scarcity: Highlight limited-time offers or exclusivedeals. Authority: Use expert testimonials or endorsements. Consistency: Encourage public commitments or smallinitial actions. L iking: Utilize relatable figures or influencers. Consensus: Show others' behavior (e.g., "Most peoplerecycle"). Unity: Appeal to group identity or shared values.
