AP Psychology Study Guide PDF

Units 1&2 Test Prep/Study Guide/“sample questions” AP Psychology Mr. Rowe name: alisson quintana Period: 4 Your first test includes approximately 30 multiple-choice questions. 2 questions can only be fou...

Units 1&2 Test Prep/Study Guide/“sample questions” AP Psychology Mr. Rowe name: alisson quintana Period: 4 Your first test includes approximately 30 multiple-choice questions. 2 questions can only be found in the PowerPoint Presentations—not in the textbook 2 questions are from the book (or pdf) but were never mentioned in class. Focus your attention on: (instructions—write your answer in the space provided) Module 1 Psychology’s History and Approaches Objective 1-2. 1. Describe introspection. Introspection is looking inward and was used to engage people in self reflection. Wilhelm Wundt, “the father of psychology” used introspection in his experimental setup, aiming to measure “atoms of the mind,” focusing on reaction times and basic mental processes. The examination of one’s own conscious thoughts and feelings. This technique involves looking inward and reporting your thoughts, feelings, and sensory experiences. Objective 1-3 2. How would American psychologists between the 1920s and the 1960s define psychology? 1. Early Definitions Wundt and Titchener: Focused on introspection, sensations, and feelings; defined psychology as “the science of mental life” William James emphasized of conciousness and emotional experiences 2. Behaviorism John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner: redifined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior 3. Freudian Psychology Sigmund Freud: Focused on unconscious thought processes and emotional response from childhood experiences. 4. Humanistic Psychology (1960s) Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow: Critiqued both behaviorism and Freudian psychology as too limiting. Highlighted the importance of current environmental influences on groqth potential and the need for love and acceptance. 5. Congnitive Revolution (1960s) Shift back to interest in mental processes, exploring how we perceive, process, and remember information Cognitive Neuroscience: studies the brain activity underlying mental processes, bridging psychology and neuroscience. 3. What is the contemporary (today’s) definition of psychology?  “The science of behavior and mental processes” Psychology is now defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes Mental Processes: Internal experience (thoughts, beliefs, emotions) Module 2 Psychology’s Big Issues and Approaches Objective 2-1 4. Describe the nature-nurture issue. A longstanding controversy in psychology regarding the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) to human traits and behaviors. Charles Darwin: His theory of natural selection (1959) introduced the idea that traits beneficial for survival are selected over generations. This concept applies to both physical and behavioral traits in species. 1. Contemporary Understanding Modern psychology views the nature-nurture debate as an interaction: Nature: Refers to biological inheritance (genes, brain structure) Nurture: Refers to environmental influences (upbringing, culture, life experiences) Objective 2-2 5. Given a description of the approach taken by a psychologist, you should be able to name the psychologist’s perspective. Example: Dr. Garcia believes that her patient is depressed because of low levels of a certain chemical in his brain. What is Dr. Garcia’s perspective? Biological Perspective. Example: Dr. Lee believes that his patient is depressed because of the way the patient thinks and reasons—the patient has unrealistic expectations for himself, so he usually disappoints himself. What is Dr. Lee’s perspective? Cognitive Perspective Objective 2-3 6. What do clinical psychologists do? (you can find this is Obj. 3-1 also) 1. Assessment and Diagnosis Clinical psychologists evaluate and diagnose mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. They use interviews, questionnaires, and standardized tests. 2. Therapy and Counseling 3. Research 4. Collaboration Close-up: Improve Your Retention—and Your Grades! Objective 2-4 7. Describe the SQ3R method. An effective study strategy designed to enhance comprehension and retention of material. 5 steps: 1. Survey: Start by scanning the material. Look at headings, subheadings, and any visual aids to get an overview of the content. This gives you a framework for understanding the material.  2. Question: Formulate questions based on the headings and objectives. For example, ask yourself what the main concepts will be or what you need to learn from this section. 3. Read: Read the material actively while searching for answers to your questions. Engage with the text by taking notes and highlighting important points. 4. Retrieve: After reading, test your understanding by recalling the main ideas from memory. This step reinforces learning and helps identify areas that need more focus. 5. Review: Finally, review your notes and the material as a whole. Summarize key points in your own words to solidify your understanding. Module 3 Careers in Psychology Objective 3-1 8. What do clinical psychologists do? (you can find this is Obj. 2-3 also) 1. Assessment 2. Treatment 3. Research and Teaching 4. Consultation 5. Workshops and Public Education Module 4 The Need for Psychological Science Objective 4-1 1. Hindsight Bias Definition: The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Often referred to as the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon. Illustration: After events (like a stock market drop or sports game), people claim the outcomes were obvious, demonstrating how our recollections can be distorted. Implication: This bias highlights the importance of research in understanding events rather than relying solely on intuition, as we often misinterpret our past experiences. 2. Overconfidence Definition: Humans tend to be overly confident in their knowledge and abilities. Examples: People often overestimate how quickly they can solve problems (like anagrams) and expert predictions are frequently wrong despite high confidence (e.g., predictions about world events). Implication: Overconfidence can lead to errors in judgment and decision-making, reinforcing the need for scientific evidence over personal belief. 3. Perceiving Order in Random Events Definition: The human tendency to see patterns in random data. Examples: People might see faces in clouds or perceive streaks in coin tosses. Random sequences can seem non-random due to our desire for order.  Implication: This tendency can lead to incorrect interpretations of events, emphasizing the necessity for scientific methods to distinguish between actual patterns and random chance. 9. How might fans at a Football game demonstrate hindsight bias? Fans might argue that they knew the coach should’ve called a different play at a crucial moment. If the play fails, they’ll claim they “knew it wouldn’t work,” even if at the time were optimistic about it. Hindsight bias leads fans to believe they could predict the outcomes after the fact, despite their uncertainty before the game. 10. How might researchers demonstrate hindsight bias in Psychology experiments? Researchers can show hindsight bias by interpreting their own study findings as obvious, often claiming they predicted the outcomes. This bias can surface during peer reviews, where evaluators might question methodologies with the benefit of hindsight, or where findings are presented as universally accepted truths. 11. Your book doesn’t really define “overconfidence”. Please define overconfidence in your own words Overconfidence is the tendency to overestimate one’s knowledg, abilities, or predictions. It leads individuals to believe that they are more accurate or skilled than they actually are, often resulting in unwarranted certainty about their judgements or decisions. This bias can affect various areas, including decision making, problem solving, and forecasting, leading to errors or poor outcomes because individuals fail to recognize their limitations. 13. Explain why people consider some sequences of “heads” and “tails” coin tosses as more or less likely to be random. People often consider certain sequences of coin tosses like “HHHTTT,” as less random than others, such as “HTHTHT,” because they tend to look for patterns and predictability. This tendency, known as the illusions of patternicity leads individuals to believe that alternating results seem more random than streaks of the same outcome. In reality, all sequences of coin tosses are equally likely, but our brains are wired to perceive order in randomness, which can create a false sense of certainty about what is typical or expected in random events. Module 5 The Scientific Method and Description Objective 5-1 14. Define replication and describe how psychologists use it. Replication is the process of repeating a research study, often with different participants and in different settings, to determine whether the original findings ca be consistently reproduced. 1. How psychologists use it Confirming Reliability: Psychologists use replication to confirm the reliability of research findings. If a study's results are replicated across various populations and settings, the findings are more likely to be considered accurate and generalizable. Eliminating Bias: Replicating studies with different samples helps reduce the influence of potential biases that might have affected the original  study, such as specific conditions, participant characteristics, or contextual factors. Refining Theories: If replication efforts fail, psychologists may refine or modify the theory in question. Consistent replication strengthens the confidence in a theory, while failures to replicate may lead to adjustments in the theory or to questioning its validity. Objective 5-2 15. Describe the process of doing a case study. 1. Selection of the Subject: The researcher selects an individual or a small group that exhibits a specific phenomenon or condition they wish to study. For example, a patient with a rare psychological disorder might be chosen for detailed examination. 2. Data Collection: Researchers gather detailed information using a variety of methods, such as interviews, observations, psychological tests, medical records, or previous research. They may also gather input from family members, teachers, or healthcare providers, depending on the context. 3. Analysis of the Case: The researcher analyzes the data, looking for patterns, behaviors, and outcomes. They may study how different variables interact within the context of the individual’s life or condition. 4. Drawing Conclusions: From the analysis, psychologists develop conclusions that may offer insights into broader psychological principles. For example, studying an individual’s brain damage could reveal insights about brain functions. 5. Application to General Principles: Although case studies focus on unique individuals, the findings may suggest patterns or phenomena that could apply to a larger population. The case might inspire hypotheses for further research using other methods. Point to remember: Case studies can be extremely insightful, but their findings can also be misleading if the studied individual is atypical. Therefore, psychologists often use them to generate ideas for further research rather than to establish definitive conclusions. 16. Describe what a researcher might do while conducting a naturalistic observation. In naturalistic observation, researchers observe and record behavior in its natural environment without manipulalting or controlling any variables. Here’s what a researcher might do during this process: 1. Select the Environment: The researcher chooses a natural setting where the behavior of interest typically occurs. For example, they might observe children interacting in a playground, or primates in the wild. 2. Remain Unobtrusive: The researcher ensures that they do not interfere with the subjects' behavior. This can be done by observing from a distance, blending into the environment, or using video recording equipment. The goal is to capture the natural behavior of individuals without their knowledge that they are being observed. 3. Define Specific Behaviors: Before the observation begins, the researcher decides what specific behaviors or interactions they will focus on. For instance, they might look for instances of cooperation among children or deception among primates.  4. Record Observations: The researcher systematically records observations, often using notes, videos, or audio recordings. These observations are detailed, capturing the subjects' actions, interactions, and any other relevant factors in their environment. 5. Analyze Behavior Patterns: After collecting enough data, the researcher analyzes the recorded behaviors to identify patterns or draw conclusions. For example, they might discover that children are more likely to cooperate when an adult is not present. 6. Avoid Drawing Causal Conclusions: Because naturalistic observation does not manipulate variables, the researcher does not claim that one factor causes another. Instead, they focus on describing behaviors as they naturally occur, which can be insightful but limited in determining cause and effect. 17. Why do researchers want to select a random sample? a random sample is representative of the population. Researchers aim to select a random sample to ensure that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being chosen. This reduces sampling bias and ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. A random sample helps researchers avoid selecting individuals who may skew the results, thereby increasing the likelihood that the findings will reflect the broader population accurately. 18. What can we assume about a random sample? every member of the population had an equal chance of being selected for the sample. 19. (from your notes) How can we assume that what happens to a sample can be generalized to a population? statistics allows us to generalize from a sample to a population. Module 6 Correlation and Experimentation Objective 6-1, what does it mean to have a really strong correlation? 20. Which of these correlation coefficients has the strongest predictive value. In other words, which is the strongest correlation? (the farthest you are from zero, whether negative or positive) -.99 +.97 -.5 +.4 -.01 21. Which of these correlation coefficients has the strongest predictive value. In other words, which is the strongest correlation? +.99 -.97 +.5 -.4 +.01 22. How can you tell which correlation coefficient is stronger than another? by determining the greatest number, or the number farthest from zero. 23. Describe how two traits or behaviors that often accompany each other (they seem to go together) do not necessarily cause one another. Due to the concept of correlation. In psychology, correlation refers to a statistical relationship between two variables, where change in one variable are associated with changes in another. However, correlation does not imply causation. 24. If researchers find a strong positive or negative correlation, what can be said (and what can not be said) about the two factors? predictive power, but there is no cause and  effect relationship. “Rich people are more likely (prediction) to have expensive houses”. what we cannot say is earning more money will result in better houses. Objective 6-2 Here’s an example of an illusory correlation: Seemingly infertile couples who adopt a child are subsequently more likely to conceive a child themselves 25. Explain why people perceive this illusory correlation while no real correlation exists. People perceive this illusory correlation—where seemingly infertile couples who adopt a child are more likely to conceive—due to a cognitive bias where we notice and remember events that align with our beliefs, while ignoring or forgetting cases that do not. Objective 6-3 26. What research method is the only method for determining cause-and-effect relationships between factors? The experimental method is the only method that can determine cause and effect relationships between factors. In an experiment, researchers manipulate one or more independent variables and control other variables to observe the effects on a dependent variable. 27. Identify the experimental group and the control group of an experiment. The experimental group is the group exposed to the treatment or the condition being tested (i.e., the independent variable). The control group is the group that does not receive the treatment and is used as a comparison to evaluate the effect of the independent variable. 28. Describe how to do a double-blind procedure. In a double-blind procedure, neither the participants nor the experimenters administering the treatment know who is receiving the actual treatment and who is receiving a placebo. This helps prevent bias from both the participants' and the researchers' expectations influencing the results. 29. Identify the type of research for which the need to control for placebo effects (a double-blind procedure) is essential. Clinical trials and drug studies often require a double-blind procedure to control for placebo effects. In these studies, the participants' expectations of the treatment’s efficacy may influence their outcomes, so a double-blind design ensures the results are due to the treatment itself, not belief in its effectiveness. 30. Describe how to randomly assign participants to groups. To randomly assign participants, researchers use a method such as a random number generator or drawing names from a hat, ensuring that every participant has an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or control group. This helps minimize pre-existing differences between the groups, ensuring that any effects are due to the treatment. 31. Describe the independent variable of an experiment. The independent variable is the factor that the researcher manipulates in an experiment to observe its effect. It is the cause being tested. For example, in a study on the effect of sleep on test performance, the independent variable might be the amount of sleep participants receive. 32. Describe the dependent variable of an experiment. The dependent variable is the outcome or factor that is measured in the experiment. It is what changes in response to the manipulation of the independent variable. In the sleep study example, the dependent variable would be the participants' test scores, as it depends on how much sleep they received. Module 7 Statistical Reasoning in Everyday Life Objective 7-1 33. Calculate the mean, median, and mode for a sample of data: 4, 5, 5, 6, and 10. mean: 6 median: 5 mode:5 Objective 7-2 34. How do psychologists evaluate the effectiveness of the independent variable? In other words, how do they know whether the differences between groups reflect actual differences caused by the independent variable (and not just chance differences between groups)? 1. Evaluating the Effectiveness of the Independent Variable Representative Samples: Use samples that accurately represent the larger population. This helps ensure findings are valid. Less Variability: Data that shows consistent results (less variability) gives more reliable averages. For example, if scores are close together, we can trust the average more. Larger Sample Sizes: Bigger samples reduce the chance of random errors. More data leads to more reliable conclusions. 2. Statistical Significance Determining Significance: Researchers check if differences between groups are likely due to chance. If the difference is large and the data is reliable, it’s probably real. Significance Threshold: A common standard is p < 0.05, meaning there’s less than a 5% chance the results happened by random chance. 3. Practical vs. Statistical Significance A result can be statistically significant (e.g., p < 0.05) but not important in real life. For instance, a small average score difference might not matter much practically. Module 8 Frequently Asked Questions about Psychology Objective 8-4 35. List the Ethical principles developed by the APA. 1.) informed consent 2.) protect from physical or emotional harm 3.) confidientiality 4.) debrief afterwards