AP Psychology 1st Semester Final Exam Study Guide PDF

AP Psych – Semester One Final Exam Study Guide Social Psych - Dispositional vs. situational attributions Situational attributions blame a person's behavior on the situation, whereas dispositional attributions say a person acted a certain way because of their personality. Fundamental Attributi...

AP Psych – Semester One Final Exam Study Guide Social Psych - Dispositional vs. situational attributions Situational attributions blame a person's behavior on the situation, whereas dispositional attributions say a person acted a certain way because of their personality. Fundamental Attribution Error: This is the tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underemphasize situational factors when explaining someone else's behavior. For example, if someone cuts you off in traffic, you might think they are a rude person, rather than considering that they might be in a hurry to get somewhere. Central vs. Peripheral Route Persuasion: These are two different ways that people can be persuaded to change their attitudes or behaviors. Central Route Persuasion: This route focuses on the content of the message. People are more likely to be persuaded by strong arguments and evidence. Peripheral Route Persuasion: This route focuses on factors other than the message itself, such as the attractiveness of the speaker or the use of emotional appeals. Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: This is the tendency for people to agree to a larger request after they have already agreed to a smaller one. For example, a salesperson might ask you to try a product, and then later ask you to buy it. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: This theory states that people experience discomfort when they hold two conflicting beliefs or when their behavior contradicts their beliefs. To reduce this discomfort, people may change their beliefs or their behavior. For example, if you believe that smoking is bad for your health, but you continue to smoke, you may experience cognitive dissonance. To reduce this dissonance, you may change your belief about the dangers of smoking or you may quit smoking. Informational vs. Normative Social Influence: These are two different types of social influence. Informational Social Influence: This occurs when people conform to the behavior of others because they believe that those others have more information about the correct way to behave. For example, if you are in a new situation and you are not sure what to do, you may look to others for guidance. Normative Social Influence: This occurs when people conform to the behavior of others in order to fit in and avoid social rejection. For example, you might dress in a certain way or listen to certain music because you want to be accepted by your friends. Conformity: This is the tendency to change one's behavior or beliefs in order to fit in with a group. Conformity can be influenced by a number of factors, including:  Group size: People are more likely to conform to the behavior of a larger group. Group unanimity: People are more likely to conform if everyone else in the group is behaving in the same way. Group cohesiveness: People are more likely to conform to the behavior of a group that they identify with. Status of the group: People are more likely to conform to the behavior of a group that they perceive as having high status. Social Facilitation: This is the tendency for people to perform better on simple tasks when they are in the presence of others. However, social facilitation can lead to poorer performance on complex tasks. Social Loafing: This is the tendency for people to put in less effort when they are working in a group than when they are working alone. Social loafing is more likely to occur when people believe that their individual contributions will not be noticed or when they do not care about the task at hand. Deindividuation: This is the loss of self-awareness and self-control that can occur when people are in large groups. Deindividuation can lead to impulsive and aggressive behavior. Group Polarization vs. Groupthink: Group Polarization: This is the tendency for groups to make decisions that are more extreme than the decisions that individual members of the group would make on their own. Groupthink: This is a type of group decision-making where group members strive for consensus and avoid conflict, even if it means ignoring important information or making a bad decision. Just-World Phenomenon: This is the belief that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve. This belief can lead to blaming victims of misfortune and to prejudice against disadvantaged groups. Ingroup Bias: This is the tendency to favor members of one's own group over members of other groups. Ingroup bias can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Scapegoat Theory: This theory states that people may direct their anger and frustration towards a scapegoat, who is often a member of a minority group. Frustration-Aggression Principle: This principle states that frustration can lead to aggression. However, frustration does not always lead to aggression, and aggression can be caused by other factors as well. Social Scripts: These are culturally learned guidelines for how to behave in different social situations. Social scripts can influence people's behavior, both positively and negatively. Mere Exposure Effect: This is the tendency for people to like things that they are familiar with. The more often people are exposed to something, the more they tend to like it. Passionate vs. Companionate Love: Passionate Love: This is a type of love that is characterized by intense feelings of excitement and attraction. Passionate love is often short-lived. Companionate Love: This is a type of love that is characterized by feelings of warmth, trust, and caring. Companionate love is often long-lasting. Altruism: This is the unselfish concern for the welfare of others. Altruistic behavior can be motivated by a variety of factors, including empathy, compassion, and a sense of social responsibility. Bystander Effect: This is the tendency for people to be less likely to help someone in need if there are other people present. The bystander effect is thought to be caused by diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance, and evaluation apprehension. Social Exchange Theory: This theory states that people's social interactions are based on a cost-benefit analysis. People are more likely to help others if they believe that the benefits of helping outweigh the costs. Reciprocity Norm: This is the expectation that people will help those who have helped them. The reciprocity norm can encourage people to help others, even if they do not know them personally. Social Responsibility Norm: This is the belief that people have a responsibility to help those who are in need, regardless of whether they have helped them in the past. The social responsibility norm can encourage people to volunteer their time and donate to charity. Motivation / Emotion / Personality Big Five Traits (OCEAN): A model of personality that identifies five broad dimensions of personality: ○ Openness: Willingness to try new things and be open to new ideas. ○ Conscientiousness: Tendency to be organized, disciplined, and goal-oriented. ○ Extraversion: Preference for social interaction and stimulation. ○ Agreeableness: Tendency to be cooperative and compassionate. ○ Neuroticism: Tendency to experience negative emotions like anxiety and sadness. Id, Ego, and Superego:  ○ Id: The unconscious part of personality that operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification. ○ Ego: The conscious part of personality that mediates between the id and the superego, operating on the reality principle. ○ Superego: The moral component of personality that internalizes societal rules and standards. Pleasure Principle and Reality Principle: ○ Pleasure Principle: The id's drive to seek immediate gratification and avoid pain. ○ Reality Principle: The ego's consideration of social norms and realistic consequences before acting. Oedipus Complex: A child's unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and hostility toward the same-sex parent. Identification (Psychoanalysis): The process by which a child incorporates the values and behaviors of a parent or other significant figure. Defense Mechanisms: Unconscious psychological strategies used to protect the ego from anxiety. Examples include: ○ Repression: Forcibly blocking unacceptable thoughts or feelings from consciousness. ○ Projection: Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to others. ○ Rationalization: Justifying one's behavior with logical-sounding excuses. ○ Displacement: Redirecting one's emotions from the original source to a substitute target. Humanistic Psychology Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A theory of motivation that proposes that humans have a hierarchy of needs that must be satisfied, from basic physiological needs to self-actualization. Self-Actualization: The highest level of need in Maslow's hierarchy, involving the desire to fulfill one's full potential. Unconditional Positive Regard: A sense of being valued and accepted, regardless of one's behavior. Congruence/Incongruence: The degree of match between one's ideal self and one's actual self. Motivation Instinct Theory of Motivation: A theory that suggests that behaviors are motivated by innate, biological urges.  Drive-Reduction Theory of Motivation: A theory that suggests that motivation arises from physiological needs that create an internal state of tension (drive) that motivates organisms to satisfy the need. Arousal Theory of Motivation: A theory that suggests that people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal. Homeostasis: The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal environment. Incentive: An external stimulus that motivates behavior. Yerkes-Dodson Law: A principle that suggests that performance is best at moderate levels of arousal. Set Point: A biologically determined range of weight and temperature that the body tries to maintain. Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR): The rate at which the body burns energy while at rest. Arcuate Nucleus: A brain region involved in regulating appetite and weight. Emotion James-Lange Theory of Emotion: A theory that suggests that emotions arise from physiological arousal. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: A theory that suggests that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion: A theory that suggests that emotions arise from both physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation of the situation. Facial Feedback Theory of Emotion: A theory that suggests that facial expressions can influence emotional experiences. Stress and Health General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): A three-stage physiological response to stress, involving alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Biological Bases of Behavior Neuron: A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system. Neurons transmit information throughout the body. Dendrites: Branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages from other neurons. Axon: The long, threadlike part of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body. Myelin sheath: A fatty substance that covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed up the transmission of nerve impulses. Synaptic vesicles: Tiny sacs at the end of the axon that contain neurotransmitters. Synapse: The junction between the axon tip of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another neuron. Action potential: An electrical signal that travels down the axon of a neuron. Refractory period: A brief period after an action potential during which a neuron cannot fire another action potential. Threshold: The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential. Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit information between neurons. Reuptake: The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the sending neuron. Agonist: A drug that mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter. Antagonist: A drug that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter. Acetylcholine (ACh): A neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning. Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in pleasure, reward, and movement. Serotonin (5-HT): A neurotransmitter involved in mood, sleep, and appetite. Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter involved in alertness, arousal, and the fight-or-flight response. GABA: A neurotransmitter that inhibits brain activity. Glutamate: A neurotransmitter that excites brain activity. Central nervous system (CNS): The brain and spinal cord. Peripheral nervous system (PNS): The nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body. Somatic nervous system: The part of the PNS that controls voluntary muscle movement. Autonomic nervous system: The part of the PNS that controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate and digestion. Sympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that prepares the body for action (fight-or-flight response). Parasympathetic nervous system: The part of the autonomic nervous system that 1 calms the body and returns it to a resting state. Sensory (afferent) neurons: Neurons that carry messages from the senses to the CNS. Motor (efferent) neurons: Neurons that carry messages from the CNS to the muscles and glands. Interneurons: Neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons. Endocrine system: A system of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Brainstem: The part of the brain that connects the brain to the spinal cord and controls basic life functions, such as breathing and heart rate. Medulla: The part of the brainstem that controls vital functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Pons: The part of the brainstem that helps coordinate movement and sleep. Reticular formation: A network of neurons in the brainstem that helps regulate arousal and attention. Thalamus: The brain's sensory switchboard, directing sensory information to the appropriate areas of the cortex. Hypothalamus: A brain structure that helps regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior. Cerebellum: The part of the brain that coordinates movement and balance. Amygdala: A brain structure involved in emotion and memory. Hippocampus: A brain structure involved in memory and learning. Cerebral cortex: The outer layer of the brain, responsible for higher-level thinking, such as language, problem-solving, and consciousness. Glial cells: Cells that support and protect neurons. Lobes of the brain: The four major divisions of the cerebral cortex: frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. Corpus callosum: The large band of nerve fibers that connects the two hemispheres of the brain. Motor cortex: The area of the cerebral cortex responsible for voluntary movement. Somatosensory cortex: The area of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing sensory information from the skin, muscles, and joints. Association areas: Areas of the cerebral cortex that integrate information from different sensory areas. Broca's and Wernicke's areas: Areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language production and comprehension, respectively. Neuroplasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt. Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons. Sensation and Perception - Bottom-up processing: The process of building up a perception from individual pieces of information. - Top-down processing: The process of using prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information. - Selective attention: The ability to focus on a specific stimulus while ignoring others. - Inattentional blindness: The failure to notice a fully visible, but unexpected object because attention is focused elsewhere. - Change blindness: The failure to notice a change in a visual scene. - Transduction: The conversion of one form of energy into another, such as light waves into neural signals. - Psychophysics: The study of the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experiences. - Absolute threshold: The minimum intensity of a stimulus needed to be detected 50% of the time. - Difference threshold: The minimum difference between two stimuli needed to be detected 50% of the time. - Weber's Law: The principle that the just noticeable difference between two stimuli is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus. - Signal detection theory: A theory that explains how people detect signals in the presence of noise. - Priming: The activation of a particular association in memory. - Sensory adaptation: The decrease in sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time. - Perceptual set: A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. The Eye Pupil: The opening in the center of the iris that controls the amount of light entering the eye. Lens: The transparent structure behind the pupil that focuses light on the retina. Retina: The light-sensitive layer of tissue at the back of the eye that contains rods and cones.  Rods: Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for vision in dim light. Cones: Photoreceptor cells in the retina that are responsible for color vision and vision in bright light. Fovea: The central part of the retina where vision is sharpest. Optic nerve: The nerve that carries visual information from the retina to the brain. Vision and Perception Feature detectors: Neurons in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of a stimulus, such as lines, edges, and movement. Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: The theory that the retina contains three types of color receptors: red, green, and blue. Opponent-process theory: The theory that color vision is based on three pairs of opposing colors: red-green, blue-yellow, and black-white. Gestalt principles: Principles that describe how we organize and interpret visual information. Binocular cues: Depth cues that rely on the use of both eyes, such as retinal disparity. Monocular cues: Depth cues that rely on the use of only one eye, such as relative size and linear perspective. Retinal disparity: The difference in the images seen by the two eyes. Phi phenomenon: The illusion of movement created by a series of still images. Perceptual constancy: The tendency to perceive objects as having constant properties, even when the sensory input changes. Hearing Eardrum: The thin membrane that vibrates in response to sound waves. Middle ear bones: The hammer, anvil, and stirrup, which amplify sound waves. Cochlea: The coiled, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear that contains the hair cells. Sensorineural hearing loss: Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea or the auditory nerve. Conduction hearing loss: Hearing loss caused by damage to the outer or middle ear. Place theory: The theory that different frequencies of sound cause different parts of the basilar membrane to vibrate. Frequency theory: The theory that the frequency of the auditory nerve impulses matches the frequency of the sound wave. Other Senses and Cognition Gate-control theory: The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that controls the transmission of pain messages to the brain. Kinesthesia: The sense of the position and movement of body parts. Vestibular sense: The sense of balance and equilibrium.  Embodied cognition: The theory that the body plays a role in shaping our thoughts and perceptions. Synesthesia: A condition in which one sense is perceived as another, such as seeing colors when hearing sounds. Consciousness Hypnosis Posthypnotic suggestion: A suggestion made to a person during hypnosis that they will carry out after they are no longer hypnotized. For example, a therapist might suggest to a patient that they will feel more relaxed after the session. State and non-state theories of hypnosis: State theories of hypnosis suggest that hypnosis is a distinct altered state of consciousness. Non-state theories propose that hypnosis is a normal psychological state, and that the effects of hypnosis are due to people's expectations and beliefs. Sleep Circadian rhythm: The body's natural 24-hour cycle that regulates sleep and wakefulness. It is influenced by light and darkness. REM sleep: Rapid eye movement sleep, a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, dreaming, and increased brain activity. NREM sleep: Non-rapid eye movement sleep, a stage of sleep divided into four stages: ○ Stage 1: Light sleep, easily awakened. ○ Stage 2: Deeper sleep, characterized by sleep spindles and K-complexes. ○ Stage 3: Deep sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep. ○ Stage 4: Deepest sleep, also known as slow-wave sleep. Hypnagogic sensations: Vivid sensory experiences that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep. They can include visual hallucinations, auditory hallucinations, and feelings of falling or floating. Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus that regulates the body's circadian rhythm. Manifest content (dreams): The storyline and images of a dream, as remembered by the dreamer.  Latent content (dreams): The underlying meaning or symbolism of a dream, often hidden from the conscious mind. Theories of dreaming: ○ Wish fulfillment: Dreams are a way for the unconscious mind to fulfill wishes and desires. ○ Information processing: Dreams help to process and consolidate memories. ○ Neural activation: Dreams are the result of random neural activity in the brain during sleep. Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive drug: A substance that alters mood, perception, or thought. Substance use disorder: A mental health condition characterized by compulsive drug use and the inability to control drug use. Tolerance / Addiction / Withdrawal: ○ Tolerance: The need to use more of a drug to achieve the same effect. ○ Addiction: Compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. ○ Withdrawal: Physical and psychological symptoms that occur when a person stops using a drug. Depressants: Drugs that slow down the central nervous system, such as alcohol and benzodiazepines. Stimulants: Drugs that speed up the central nervous system, such as cocaine and amphetamines. Hallucinogens: Drugs that alter perception and can cause hallucinations, such as LSD and psilocybin mushrooms. Questions/notes Frued argued that the superego represents our socially learned conscience for right and wrong Yerkes Dodson Law: says that we will achieve optimal performance on a task when under a moderate level of stress. Cannon Bard theory says that we experience emotional and physical components of emotion are simultaneous. -Top down processing for repeated experiences Bottom up is for new experiences According to young helmholtx theory blah Vestibular sense is out ability to sense our whole bodys movement and positioning in space. Overexposure to loud sounds over time will lead to sensorinureal hearing loss Whats conduction hearing loss: look up The is the spot in the eye where most cones are found and therefore where our vision is sharpest somatic nervous system- regulates skeletal muscles motor In order to be diagnosed with a substance use disorder, a persons drug use must continue despite knowledge thats it bad for you Action potential (don’t know what potential is) must use threshold. WHEN a neuron fires, it creates an action potential. Acetylcholine NT enables muscle action and is associated with learning and memory