Abnormal Psychology PDF

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY  2 ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR IN HISTORICAL CONTENT ❑ Understanding Psychopathology ❑ The Supernatural Tradition ❑ The Biological Tradition ❑ The Psychological Tradition ❑ The Present: The Scientific Method and an Integrative Approach UNDE...

ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY  2 ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR IN HISTORICAL CONTENT ❑ Understanding Psychopathology ❑ The Supernatural Tradition ❑ The Biological Tradition ❑ The Psychological Tradition ❑ The Present: The Scientific Method and an Integrative Approach UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY  4 CASE OF JUDY WHO FAINTED AT THE SIGHT OF BLOOD ❖ 16-year-old ❖ Increasing episodes of fainting ❖ 2 years ago in biology class a frog dissection was shown to illustrates various points about anatomy ❖ Graphic film, with vivid images of blood, tissue & muscle ❖ Judy felt lightheaded & left the room but the images did not leave her ❖ She continued to be bothered by them and occasionally felt slightly queasy ❖ She began to avoid situations in which she might see blood or injury ❖ She found difficulty to look at raw meat or even band-aids, because they brought the feared images to mind ❖ Eventually, anything her friends and parents said that evoked image of blood injury caused Judy to feel lightheaded  5 CASE OF JUDY WHO FAINTED AT THE SIGHT OF BLOOD ❖ Even when her friends exclaimed “cut it out” she felt faint ❖ Beginning about 6 months before her visit to the clinic, she fainted when she unavoidably encountered something bloody ❖ This was problematic for her and disruptive in school ❖ The principal finally concluded that she was being manipulative and suspended her from school, even though she was honor student ❖ Judy was suffering from what we called “Blood-injection-injury phobia” ❖ Phobia is a psychological disorder characterized by marked ad persistent fear of an object or situation PSYCHOLOGICAL 6 DISORDER A psychological dysfunction within an individual associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a response that is not typically or culturally expected.  7 THREE CRITERIA OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER Psychological Dysfunction Distress or impairment Not typical or not culturally expected  8 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER ACCORDING TO DSM-5 Describes behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunctions that are unexpected in their cultural context and associated with present distress and impairment in functioning, or increased risk of suffering, death, pain or impairment. 4 Ds of Abnormality 9 Dysfunction Deviance Mental Disorder Distress Danger  10 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY It is the scientific study of psychological disorders. In this field are specially trained professional including clinical and counseling psychologists, psychiatrists, psychiatric social workers, psychiatric nurses, marriage & family therapists and mental health counselors PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 11 The most important development in the recent history of psychopathology is the adoption of scientific methods to learn ore about the nature of psychological disorder, their causes, and their treatment  12 PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Clinical Treatment & Etiology Description Outcome Unique Origins and Pharmacology, combination caused which Psychological of behaviors, include or Combined thoughts and biological, feelings that psychological make up a and social specific dimensions disorder CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGISTS 13 AND COUNSELING PSYCHOLOGIST Receive Ph.D degree (or sometimes an Ed.D., doctor of Education or, Psy.D., Doctor of Psychology and follow a course of graduate- level study lasting approximately 5 years, which prepares them to conduct research into the causes and treatment of psychological disorders and to diagnose, assess, and treat these disorders.  14 PSYCHIATRIST First earn an MD degree in medical school and then specialize in psychiatry during residency training that lasts 3 to 4 years. They also investigate the nature and causes of psychological disorders, often from a biological point of view; make diagnoses; and offer treatments. Emphasizes on drugs or other biological treatments, although most use psychosocial treatment as well. PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL 15 WORKER Typically earns a master’s degree in social work as they develop expertise in collecting information relevant to the social and family situation of the individual with a psychological disorder. They also treats disorders, often concentrating on family problems associated with them. PSYCHIATRIC NURSES 16 Have advance degree, such as master’s or even Ph.D and specialize in the care and treatment of patients with psychological disorders, usually in hospitals as part of a treatment team. MARRIAGE AND FAMILY 17 THERAPIST AND MENTAL HEALTH COUNSELORS Typically spend a-2 years earning a master’s degree and are employed to provide clinical services by hospitals or clinics, usually under the supervision of a doctor-level clinician.  18 SCIENTIST-PRACTITIONERS Are those mental health professionals take scientific approach to their clinical work. WAYS THAT MENTAL HEALTH PRACTITIONER 19 FUNCTIONS AS SCIENTIST-PRACTITIONERS 1. They may keep up with the latest scientific developments in their field and therefore use the most current diagnostic and treatment procedure. 2. Evaluate their own assessments or treatment procedures to see whether they work. 3. Might conduct research often in clinics or hospitals that produces new information about disorders or their treatment. CLINICAL DESCRIPTION 20 o Presenting problem – is a traditional shorthand way of indicating why the person came to the clinic. o Clinical description – represents the unique combination of behavior, thoughts, and feelings that make up a specific disorder. o Prevalence of the disorder – how many people in the population as a whole have the disorder. o Incidence of the disorder – statistics on how many new cases occur during a given period, such as a year. o Sex Ratio – percentage of males and females who have disorder CLINICAL DESCRIPTION 21 o Course – individual pattern Chronic course – they tend to last a long time, sometimes lifetime (ex. Schizophrenia). Episodic Course – individual likely to recover within a few months only to suffer a recurrence of the disorder at a later time. May repeat throughout a person’s life. Time-limited Course – the disorder will improve without treatment in a relatively short period with little or no risk of recurrence. CLINICAL DESCRIPTION 22 o Onset Acute onset– meaning that they begin suddenly. Insidious onset – develop gradually over an extended period. o Prognosis The Prognosis is good - meaning individual will probably recover. The Prognosis is guarded – meaning the probable outcome does not look good. CAUSATION, TREATMENT & 23 ETIOLOGY OUTCOME o Etiology – study of origins; why the disorders begins (what causes it) which includes biological, psychological, and social dimensions. o Treatment – often important to the study of psychological disorder; if the treatment is effective, it may give some hints about the nature of the disorder and it’s causes.  HISTORICAL CONCEPTIONS 24 OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR Three Major Models o Supernatural Model– agents outside our bodies e.g. divinities, demons, spirits or other phenomena such as magnetic field or the moon or stars. o Biological Model– body can influence the mind o Psychological Model– mind can influence the body  THE SUPERNATURAL 25 TRADITION o Barbara Tuchman– a noted historian, chronicled the second half of the 14th century, a particularly difficult time for humanity, in “A Distant Mirror”. She ably captures the conflicting tides of opinion on the origins and treatment of insanity during that bleak and tumultuous period.  26 DEMONS AND WITCHES o People increasingly turned to magic and sorcery to solve their problems. o Bizarre behavior of people afflicted with psychological disorders was seen as the work of the devil and witches o Individuals possessed by evil spirits were probably responsible for any misfortune experienced by people in the local community. o Exorcism – religious rituals were performed in an effort to rid the victim of evil spirits. STRESS AND MELANCHOLY 27 o Mental depression and anxiety were recognized as illness, although symptoms such as despair and lethargy were often identified by church with the sin of Acedia or sloth. Common treatments were rest, sleep and a healthy and happy environment. Other treatments included baths, ointments, and various potions. o According to Nicholas Oresme a bishop and philosopher, suggested that the disease of melancholy (depression) was a source of some bizarre behavior rather than demons.  28 TREATMENTS FOR POSSESSIONS Possessions is not always connected with sin but may be seen as involuntary and the possessed individual as blameless. Exorcism at least have the virtue of being relatively painless. MASS HYSTERIA 29 Simply demonstrate the phenomenon of emotion contagion in which the experience of an emotion seems to spread to those around us. Mob Psychology is a shared response In Europe as early as 10th century dancing manias were reported In Italy, episode occurred known as tarantism a disorder that include an uncontrollable impulse to dance that was attributed to the bite of southern European tarantula or wolf spider. It spread to Germany and the rest of the Europe then was known as Saint Vitu’s dance. Lycanthropy a condition in which people believed themselves to be possessed by wolves and imitated their behavior  30 THE MOON AND STARS Paracelsus (1493-1541) a Swiss physician, was an early critics of superstitious beliefs about possessions by the devil. His view about abnormal behavior was colored by his beliefs in astral influences. He was convinced that the moon exerted a supernatural influence over the brain. He also postulated a conflict between the instinctual and spiritual natures of human beings Formulated the idea of psychic causes of illness and advocated treatment by “body magnetism” which later called hypnosis.  31 THE BIOLOGICAL TRADITION Hippocrates and Galen Hippocrates – Green physician (460 – 377 b.c.) is considered as the Father of Modern Western Medicine. Considered the brain to be seat of wisdom consciousness , intelligence and emotion. Recognized importance of psychological and interpersonal contributions to psychopathology, such as the sometimes- negative effects of family stress; on some occasions, he removed patients from their families.  32 HIPPOCRATIC CORPUS written between 450 and 350 b.c. (Maher & Maher, 1985), suggested that psychological disorders could be treated like any other disease. They believed that psychological disorders might also be caused by brain pathology or head trauma and could be influenced by heredity (genetics).  33 GALEN Roman physician (approximately a.d. 129–198) later adopted the ideas of Hippocrates and his associates and developed them further, creating a powerful and influential school of thought within the biological tradition that extended well into the 19th century.  34 HIPPROCRATIC-GALENIC APPROACH The humoral theory of disorders. Hippocrates assumed that normal brain functioning was related to four bodily fluids or humors: blood, black bile, yellow bile, and phlegm. Blood came from the heart, black bile from the spleen, phlegm from the brain, and choler or yellow bile from the liver. Physicians believed that disease resulted from too much or too little of one of the humors.  35 FOUR HUMORS Sanguine –literal meaning is red, like blood; describes someone who is ruddy in complexion, presumably from copious blood flowing through the body, cheerful and optimistic, although insomnia and delirium were thought caused by excessive blood in the brain. Melancholic – means depressive Phelgmatic – indicates apathy and sluggishness but can also mean being calm under stress. Choleric – is hot tempered  36 TREATMENTS Bleeding or bloodletting – a carefully measured amount of blood was removed from the body, often with leeches. Induced vomiting - a well-known treatise on depression published in 1621, Anatomy of Melancholy, Robert Burton recommended eating tobacco and a half-boiled cabbage to induced vomiting  37 CHINESE focused on the movement of air or “wind” throughout the body. Unexplained mental disorders were caused by blockages of wind or the presence of cold, dark wind (yin) as opposed to warm, life-sustaining wind (yang). Treatment involved restoring proper flow of wind through various methods, including acupuncture.  38 HYSTERIA to describe a concept he learned about from the Egyptians, who had identified what we now call the somatic symptom disorders. In these disorders, the physical symptoms appear to be the result of a medical problem for which no physical cause can be found, such as paralysis and some kinds of blindness.  39 THE 19TH CENTURY The biological tradition waxed and waned during the centuries after Hippocrates and Galen but was reinvigorated in the 19th century because of two factors: the discovery of the nature and cause of syphilis and strong support from the well-respected American psychiatrist John P. Grey.  40 SYPHILIS sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterial microorganism entering the brain, include believing that everyone is plotting against you (delusion of persecution) or that you are God (delusion of grandeur), as well as other bizarre behaviors. Although these symptoms are similar to those of psychosis—psychological disorders characterized in part by beliefs that are not based in reality (delusions), perceptions that are not based in reality (hallucinations), or both.  41 1825 the condition was designated a disease, general paresis, because it had consistent symptoms (presentation) and a consistent course that resulted in death. The relationship between general paresis and syphilis was only gradually established. LOUIS PASTEUR’S GERM 42 THEORY developed in about 1870, facilitated the identification of the specific bacterial microorganism that caused syphilis. Of equal importance was the discovery of a cure for general paresis. Physicians observed a surprising recovery in patients with general paresis who had contracted malaria, so they deliberately injected other patients with blood from a soldier who was ill with malaria. Many recovered because the high fever “burned out” the syphilis bacteria. Ultimately, clinical investigators discovered that penicillin cures syphilis, but with the malaria cure, “madness” and associated behavioral and cognitive symptoms for the first time were traced directly to a curable infection. JOHN P. GREY 43 The champion of the biological tradition in the United States. Most influential American psychiatrist of the time (Bockoven, 1963). In 1854, Grey was appointed superintendent of the Utica State Hospital in New York, the largest in the country. Became editor of the American Journal of Insanity, the precursor of the current American Journal of Psychiatry, the flagship publication of the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Grey’s position was that the causes of insanity were always physical. Therefore, the mentally ill patient should be treated as physically ill. The emphasis was again on rest, diet, and proper room temperature and ventilation, approaches used for centuries by previous therapists in the biological tradition. Grey even invented the rotary fan to ventilate his large hospital. Under Grey’s leadership, the conditions in hospitals greatly improved and they became more humane, livable institutions. But in subsequent years they also became so large and impersonal that individual attention was not possible. THE DEVELOPMENT OF 44 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENTS 1930s- physical interventions of electric shock and brain surgery were often used. Their effects, and the effects of new drugs, were discovered quite by accident. 1927- Viennese physician, Manfred Sakel, began using increasingly higher dosages until, finally, patients convulsed and became temporarily comatose (Sakel, 1958). Some actually recovered their mental health, much to the surprise of everybody, and their recovery was attributed to the convulsions. The procedure became known as insulin shock therapy, but it was abandoned because it was too dangerous, often resulting in prolonged coma or even death.  45 Benjamin Franklin- made numerous discoveries during his life with which we are familiar, but most people don’t know that he discovered accidentally, and then confirmed experimentally in the 1750s, that a mild and modest electric shock to the head produced a brief convulsion and memory loss (amnesia) but otherwise did little harm. Dutch physician- friend and colleague of Franklin tried it on himself and discovered that the shock also made him “strangely elated” and wondered if it might be a useful treatment for depression (Finger & Zaromb, 2006, p. 245).  1920s- Hungarian psychiatrist Joseph von Meduna observed that schizophrenia was rarely found in individuals with 46 epilepsy (which ultimately did not prove to be true). Some of his followers concluded that induced brain seizures might cure schizophrenia. Ugo Cerletti and Lucio Bini- Italian physicians in 1938—a surgeon in London treated a depressed patient by sending six small shocks directly through his brain, producing convulsions (Hunt, 1980). The patient recovered. Although greatly modified, shock treatment is still with us today. 1950- the first effective drugs for severe psychotic disorders were developed in a systematic way. Before that time, a number of medicinal substances, including opium (derived from poppies), had been used as sedatives, along with countless herbs and folk remedies (Alexander & Selesnick, 1966).  47 Rauwolfia serpentine (later renamed reserpine) and another class of drugs called neuroleptics (major tranquilizers), for the first time hallucinatory and delusional thought processes could be diminished in some patients; these drugs also controlled agitation and aggressiveness. Other discoveries included benzodiazepines (minor tranquilizers), which seemed to reduce anxiety. As drawbacks and side effects of tranquilizers became apparent, along with their limited effectiveness, prescriptions decreased somewhat.  48 Throughout the centuries, as Alexander and Selesnick point out, “The general pattern of drug therapy for mental illness has been one of initial enthusiasm followed by disappointment” (1966, p. 287). By the 1920s they were reported as being effective for many serious psychological and emotional symptoms. By 1928, one of every five prescriptions in the United States was for bromides. When their side effects, including various undesirable physical symptoms, became widely known, and experience began to show that their overall effectiveness was relatively modest, bromides largely disappeared from the scene.  49 NEUROLEPTICS used less as attention has focused on their many side effects, such as tremors and shaking. However, the positive effects of these drugs on some patients’ psychotic symptoms of hallucinations, delusions, and agitation revitalized both the search for biological contributions to psychological disorders and the search for new and more powerful drugs. CONSEQUENCES OF THE BIOLOGICAL TRADITION 50 Emil Kraepelin (1856–1926)- the dominant figure during this period and one of the founding fathers of modern psychiatry. He was extremely influential in advocating the major ideas of the biological tradition, but he was little involved in treatment. His lasting contribution was in the area of diagnosis and classification. (1913)- was one of the first to distinguish among various psychological disorders, seeing that each may have a different age of onset and time course, with somewhat different clusters of presenting symptoms, and probably a different cause. Many of his descriptions of schizophrenic disorders are still useful today.  51 End of the 1800s- a scientific approach to psychological disorders and their classification had begun with the search for biological causes. Furthermore, treatment was based on humane principles. There were many drawbacks, however, the most unfortunate being that active intervention and treatment were all but eliminated in some settings, despite the availability of some effective approaches. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TRADITION 52 In the first half of 19th century, moral therapy, a strong psychosocial approach to mental disorders became influential. The term moral referred more to emotional or psychological factors rather than a code of conduct. Basic tenets: treating institutionalized patients as normally as possible in a setting that encouraged and reinforced normal social interaction.  53 Philippe Pinel (1745-1826) and Jean-Baptist Pussin (1746-1811) -instituted humane, positive psychological interventions and socially facilitative atmosphere in hospitals, which produced "miraculous"results. William Tuke (1732-1822)- followed Pinel's lead, established the York Retreat, a pleasant country house where mental patients lived, worked and rested in a kindly, religious atmosphere. This retreat resented the culmination of a noble battle against the brutality, ignorance and indifference of Tuke's time  54 Benjamin Rush- the founder of U.S psychiatry, encouraged more humane treatment of the mentally ill; wrote the first systematic treatise on psychiatry in America, Medical Inquiries and Observations upon Diseases of the Mind (1812); and was the first American to organize a course in psychiatry. 16th century- there appeared asylums - sanctuaries or places of refuge meant solely for the care of mentally ill--grew in number. First asylum was built in Europe was probably in Spain in 1409. ASYLUM REFORM & DECLINE OF MORAL THERAPY 55 Dorothea Dix- an American teacher, campaigned for reform in the treatment of insanity. The rise of her work, mental hygiene movement, advocated a method of treatment focused almost exclusively on the physical well-being of mentally ill. PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY 56 Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815),who suggested to his patients that their problem was caused by an undetectable fluid found in all living organisms called "animal magnetism". Mesmer was eventually branded a charlatan by his medical colleagues and an appointed body of noted scholars that included the American scientist Benjamin Franklin, who concluded that animal magnetism, or mesmerism, was nothing more than strong suggestion Jean-Martin Charcot- a distinguished neurologist, treated women with hysteria; proposed that people with hysteria have susceptible nerves, and that their hysterical symptoms could be cured by hypnosis. In 1885, Sigmund Freud came from Vienna to study with Charcot  Sigmund Freud- a Viennese neurologist, was 57 influenced by Charcot to consider psychosocial approaches to psychological disorders. Freud worked with another Viennese physician. Josef Breuer(1842-1925), who had experimented with a somewhat different hypnotic procedure. They then discovered the unconscious mind and its apparent influence on the production of psychological disorders. They also discovered that it is therapeutic to recall and relieve emotional trauma that has been made unconscious and to release the accompanying tension. This release of emotional material was known as catharsis  In 1893, Freud & Breuer published their joint paper On The 58 Physical Mechanisms of Hysterical Phenomena, which was one of the great milestones in the study of the dynamics of the conscious and unconscious. Their theories were based on case observations, an excellent example is Breuer's classic description of his treatment of "hysterical" symptoms in Anna O in 1895. Freud took his basic observations and expanded them into the psychoanalytic model, the most comprehensive theory yet constructed on the development and structure of our personalities. He also speculated on where this development could go wrong and produce psychological disorders. Although many of Freud’s views changed over time, the basic principles of mental functioning that he originally proposed remained constant through his writings and are still applied by psychoanalysts today. THE STRUCTURE OF THE MIND 59 Id (pleasure principle) - the "it"; source of strong sexual and aggressive feelings or energies. The energy drive within the id is the libido. Its type of thinking is emotional, irrational, illogical and filled with fantasies. Ego (reality principle) - the "I"; the role of the ego is to mediate conflict between the id and the superego. Its thinking styles are characterized by logic and reason. Superego (moral principle) - the "above I"; the seat of an individual's conscience. It counteract the potentially dangerous aggressive and sexual drives of the id, the basis of conflict is readily apparent.  60 DEFENSE MECHANISMS Denial: refuses to acknowledge some aspect of objective reality or subjective experience that is apparent to others Displacement: transfers a feeling about, or a response to, an object that causes discomfort onto another, usually less-threatening, object or person Projection: falsely attributes own unacceptable feelings, impulses, or thoughts to another individual or object; Rationalization: conceals the true motivations for actions, thoughts, or feelings through elaborate reassuring or self-serving but incorrect explanations Reaction formation: substitutes behavior, thoughts, or feelings that are the direct opposite of unacceptable ones Repression: blocks disturbing wishes, thoughts, or experiences from conscious awareness Sublimation: directs potentially maladaptive feelings or impulses into socially acceptable behavior PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 61 The stages - oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital - represent distinctive patterns of gratifying our basic needs and satisfying our drive for physical pleasure. For example, the oral stage, typically extending for approximately 2 years from birth, is characterized by a central focus on the need for food. Freud hypothesized that if we did not receive appropriate gratification during a specific stage or if a specific stage left a particularly strong impression(fixation), an individual’s personality would reflect the stage throughout adult life.  Oedipus Rex (psychosexual conflict)- Freud's idea that62all young boys relive their fantasy when genital self- stimulation is accompanied by images of sexual interactions with their mothers. Castration Anxiety – strong fears develop that the father may punish that lust by removing the son’s penis. Oedipus Complex – The battle of the lustful impulses on the other hand and castration anxiety on the other creates a conflict that is internal or intrapsychic.  63 Electra Complex - counterpart conflict in girls. Freud viewed young girls as wanting to replace her mother and possess her father. Central to this possession is penis envy - girl's desire for a penis, as to be more like her father and brothers. Neuroses or neurotic disorders - all nonpsychotic psychological disorders resulted from underlying unconscious conflicts, the anxiety that resulted from those conflicts, and the implementation of ego defense mechanisms. LATER DEVELOPMENT IN PSYCHOANALYTIC THOUGHT 64 Anna Freud (1895-1982)- Freud's daughter, was the first proponent of the modern field of ego psychology. She focused on the way in which the defensive reactions of the ego determine our behavior. According to her, the individual slowly accumulates adaptation capacities, skill in reality testing and defenses. Heinz Kohut(1913-1981)- focused on a theory of the formation of self-concept and theft crucial attributes of the self that allow an individual to progress towards health, or conversely to develop neurosis. This was known as self-psychology.  65 Carl Jung(1875-1961)- student of Freud, rejected his idea and introduced the concept of the collective unconscious - wisdom accumulated by society and culture that is stored deep in individual memories and passed down from generation to generation. He emphasized the importance of enduring personality traits such as introversion and extroversion. Alfred Adler(1870-1937)- also a student of Freud, focused on feelings of inferiority and the striving for superiority; he created the term inferiority complex. PSYCHOANALYTIC PSYCHOTHERAPY 66 Free association- a method developed by Freud, involved patients talk freely about themselves, thereby providing information about their feelings, motives and so on. Dream analysis, involved patients record and describe their dreams. These methods helped analysts and patients gain insights and achieve a better understanding of the patient’s emotional problems.  67 Therapeutic Alliance - relationship between therapist and the patient. Transference - phenomenon wherein, patients come to relate to the therapist much as they did to important figures in their childhood, particularly their parents. Counter transference - phenomenon wherein, therapists project some of their own personal issues and feelings, usually positive, onto the patient.  PSYCHODYNAMIC 68 PSYCHOTHERAPY Psychoanalysis is still practiced, but many psychotherapists employ a loosely related set of approaches referred to as psycho dynamic psychotherapy. Seven tactics characterized by it include: a focus on affect and the expression of patient's emotions; an exploration of patient's attempts to avoid topics or engage in activities that hinder the progress of therapy; the identification of patterns in patients' actions, thoughts, feelings, experiences, and relationships; an emphasis on past experiences; a focus on patients' interpersonal experiences; an emphasis on the therapeutic relationships; an exploration of patients’ wishes, dreams or fantasies. ADDITIONAL FEATURES CHARACTERIZE PSYCHODYNAMIC 69 PSYCHOTHERAPY It significantly briefer than classical psychoanalysis. Psychodynamic therapists deemphasize the goal of personality reconstruction, focusing instead on relieving the suffering associated with psychological disorder. HUMANISTIC THEORY 70 Focuses on free will, innate goodness, creativity, and the self. Jung – talked about setting goals, looking toward the future and realizing one’s fullest potential, Adler – believed that human nature reaches its fullest potential when we contribute to the welfare of other individuals and to society as a whole. He believed that we all strive to reach superior level of intellectual and moral development.  Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)- the most systematic in describing 71 the structure of personality. He postulated a hierarchy of needs, beginning with our most basic physical needs for food and sexual and ranging upward to our most basic physical needs for self- actualization, love, and self-esteem. Carl Rogers(1902-1987)- the most influential humanists; developed client centered therapy, later known as person-centered theory; he proposed that symptoms of distress and mental illness arise when a potential route to personal growth is blocked, as can occur when a person lacks a coherent and unified sense of self or when there is a mismatch—or in congruence—between the ideal self and the real self. Unconditional positive regard - complete and almost unqualified acceptance of most of the client's feelings and actions; critical to the humanistic approach. Empathy - sympathetic understanding of the individual's particular view of the world  72 BEHAVIORAL MODEL Which is also known as the cognitive-behavioral model or social learning model, brought the systematic development of a more scientific approach to psychological psychopathology. Pavlov & Classical Conditioning Ivan Petrovich Pavlov(1849-1936), a Russian physiologist, initiated the study of classical conditioning, a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a response until it elicits that response. After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response. Pavlov demonstrated that dogs would gradually begin to salivate in response to a nonfood stimulus such as a bell after the stimulus had been regularly accompanied by food. And from there, the food is the unconditioned stimulus and the salivation is the unconditioned response. WATSON AND THE RISE OF 73 BEHAVIORISM John B. Watson(1878-1958), the founder of behaviorism; he changed the focus of psychology to the study of overt behavior rather than the study of theoretical mentalist constructs, an approach called behaviorism. He also reasoned that if psychology was to become a true science, it would have to abandon the subjectivity of inner sensations and other "mental" events and limit itself to what could be objectively observed. Among the most important insights of behaviorism, then, is that a person's behavior, including manipulative behavior, can result from learning--from a previous association with an object, situation or event. THE BEGINNING OF 74 BEHAVIOR THERAPY In the late 1940's and 1950's, Joseph Wolpe (1915- 1997), a pioneering psychiatrist from South Africa became dissatisfied with prevailing psychoanalytic interpretations of psychopathology; inspired by the worked of Pavlov, he developed a variety of behavioral procedures for treating his patients, many who suffered from phobias. His best-known technique is systematic desensitization; similar to the treatment of little Peter; it reported great success to Wolpe. And while working with fellow pioneers Hans Eysenck and Stanley Rachman in London, they called this approach behavior therapy. B.F. SKINNER AND OPERANT 75 CONDITIONING While Pavlov and Watson were studying stimulus- response conditioning, E.L. Thorndike(1874-1949) and subsequently B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), were exploring a different kind of conditioning, one in which the consequences of behavior influence behavior. Burrhus Frédéric Skinner published The Behavior of Organisms(1938), in which he laid out the principles of operant conditioning, a type of learning in which behavior changes as a function of what follows the behavior.  Operant conditioning – a type of learning in which behavior 76 changes as a function of what follows the behavior. Reinforcement - strengthen behavior Basic Kinds of Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement - strengthens response by prestigious a stimulus after a response. Negative Reinforcement - strengthens a response by reducing or removing an aversive stimulus. Schedules of Reinforcement Shaping - a process of reinforcing successive approximations to a final behavior or set of behaviors. THE PRESENT: THE 77 SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH Each tradition has failed in important ways. First, scientific methods were not often applied to the theories and treatments within a tradition, mostly because methods that would have produced the evidence necessary to confirm or disprove the theories and treatments had not been developed. Lacking such evidence, many people accepted various fads and superstitions that ultimately proved to be untrue or useless. In the 1990s, two developments came together as never before to shed light on the nature of psychopathology: (1) the increasing sophistication of scientific tools and methodology, and (2) the realization that no one influence—biological, behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or social— ever occurs in isolation.  78 Adolf Meyer (1866-1950), the dean of American psychiatry, emphasized the equal contributions of biological, psychological and sociocultural determinism in the cause of psychopathology. By 2000, veritable explosion of psychological knowledge about psychopathology was reoccurring. In 2010, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH)instituted a strategic plan to support further research and development on the interrelationship of these factors with the aim of translating research findings to front-line treatment settings. THANK YOU Rhona L. Cagampan, RPsy