Key Terms 6-10 in Genetics & Personality PDF

key terms 6-10 Status Not started Chapter 6: Genetics and Personality 1.Active Genotype-Environment Correlation: Occurs when a person with a particular genotype creates or seeks out a particular environment. 2.Adoption Studies: Studies...

key terms 6-10 Status Not started Chapter 6: Genetics and Personality 1.Active Genotype-Environment Correlation: Occurs when a person with a particular genotype creates or seeks out a particular environment. 2.Adoption Studies: Studies that examine the correlations between adopted children and their adoptive parents, with whom they share no genes. These correlations are then compared to the correlations between the adopted children and their genetic parents, who had no influence on the environments of the children. Differences in these correlations can indicate the relative magnitude of genetic and environment contributions to personality traits. 3.Dizygotic (DZ) Twins: (also called fraternal twins) Twins who are not genetically identical. They come from two eggs that were separately fertilized ("di" means two; so dizygotic means "coming from two fertilized eggs"). Such twins share only 50 percent of their genes with their co-twin, the same amount as ordinary brothers and sisters. Fraternal twins can be of the same sex or of the opposite sex. 4.DRD4 Gene: A gene located on the short arm of chromosome 11 that codes for a protein called a dopamine receptor. The function of this dopamine receptor is to respond to the presence of dopamine, which is a neurotransmitter. When the dopamine receptor encounters dopamine from other neurons in the brain, it discharges an electrical signal, activating other neurons. 5.Environmentalist View: Environmentalists believe that personality is determined by socialization practices, such as parenting style and other agents of society. 6.Environmentality: The percentage of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be attributed to environmental (nongenetic) differences. Generally speaking, the larger the heritability, the smaller the environmentality. And vice versa, the smaller the heritability, the larger the environmentality. 7.Equal Environments Assumption: The assumption that the environments experienced by identical twins are no more similar to each other than are the key terms 6-10 1  environments experienced by fraternal twins. If they are more similar, then the greater similarity of the identical twins could plausibly be due to the fact that they experience more similar environments rather than the fact that they have more genes in common. 8.Eugenics: The notion that the future of the human race can be influenced by fostering the reproduction of persons with certain traits, and discouraging reproduction among persons without those traits or who have undesirable traits. 9.Family Studies: Family studies correlate the degree of genetic overlap among family members with the degree of personality similarity. They capitalize on the fact that there are known degrees of genetic overlap between different members of a family in terms of degree of relationship. 10.Genetic Junk: The 98 percent of the DNA in human chromosomes that are not protein-coding genes; scientists believed that these parts were functionless residue. Recent studies have shown that these portions of DNA may affect everything from a person's physical size to personality, thus adding to the complexity of the human genome. 11.Genome: The complete set of genes an organism possesses. The human genome contains somewhere between 20,000 and 30,000 genes. 12.Genotype-Environment Correlation: The differential exposure of individuals with different genotypes to different environments. 13.Genotype-Environment Interaction: The differential response of individuals with different genotypes to the same environments. 14.Genotypic Variance: Genetic variance that is responsible for individual differences in the phenotypic expression of specific traits. 15.Heritability: A statistic that refers to the proportion of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be explained or "accounted for" by genetic variance (Plomin, DeFries, & McClearn, 1990). It describes the degree to which genetic differences between individuals cause differences in some observed property, such as height, extraversion, or sensation seeking. The formal definition of heritability is the proportion of phenotypic variance that is attributable to genotypic variance. 16.Molecular Genetics: Techniques designed to identify the specific genes associated with specific traits, such as personality traits. The most common key terms 6-10 2  method, called the association method, identifies whether individuals with a particular gene (or allele) have higher or lower scores on a particular trait measure. 17.Monozygotic (MZ) Twins: Identical twins that come from a single fertilized egg (or zygote, hence monozygotic) that divides into two at some point during gestation. Identical twins are always the same sex because they are genetically identical. 18.Nature-Nurture Debate: The ongoing debate as to whether genes or environment are more important determinants of personality. 19.Nonshared Environmental Influences: Features of the environment that siblings do not share. Some children might get special or different treatment from their parents, they might have different groups of friends, they might be sent to different schools, or one might go to summer camp while the other stays home each summer. These features are called "nonshared" because they are experienced differently by different siblings. 20.Passive Genotype-Environment Correlation: Occurs when parents provide both genes and environment to children, yet the children do nothing to obtain that environment. 21.Percentage of Variance: Individuals vary or are different from each other, and this variability can be partitioned into percentages that are related to separate causes or separate variables. An example is the percentages of variance in some trait that are related to genetics, the shared environment, and the unshared environment. Another example would be the percentage of variance in happiness scores that are related to various demographic variables, such as income, gender, and age. 22.Phenotypic Variance: Observed individual differences, such as in height, weight, or personality. 23.Reactive Genotype-Environment Correlation: Occurs when parents (or others) respond to children differently depending on their genotype. 24.Selective Breeding: One method of doing behavior genetic research. Researchers might identify a trait and then see if they can selectively breed animals to possess that trait. This can occur only if the trait has a genetic basis. For example, dogs that possess certain desired characteristics, such as a sociable key terms 6-10 3  disposition, might be selectively bred to see if this disposition can be increased in frequency among offspring. Traits that are based on learning cannot be selectively bred for. 25.Selective Placement: If adopted children are placed with adoptive parents who are similar to their birth parents, this may inflate the correlations between the adopted children and their adoptive parents. In this case, the resulting inflated correlations would artificially inflate estimates of environmental influence because the correlation would appear to be due to the environment provided by the adoptive parent. There does not seem to be selective placement, and so this potential problem is not a problem in actual studies (Plomin et al. , 1990). 26.Shared Environmental Influences: Features of the environment that siblings share; for example, the number of books in the home, the presence or absence of a TV and VCR, quality and quantity of the food in the home, the values and attitudes of the parent, and the schools, church, synagogue, or temple the parents send the children to. 27.Twin Studies: Twin studies estimate heritability by gauging whether identical twins, who share 100 percent of their genes, are more similar to each other than fraternal twins, who share only 50 percent of their genes. Twin studies, and especially studies of twins reared apart, have received tremendous media attention. Chapter 7: Physiological Approaches to Psychology 1.alpha wave: A particular type of brain wave that oscillates 8 to 12 times a second. The amount of alpha wave present in a given time period is an inverse indicator of brain activity during that time period. The alpha wave is given off when the person is calm and relaxed. In a given time period of brain wave recording, the more alpha wave activity present the more we can assume that part of the brain was less active. 2.anxiety: An unpleasant, high-arousal emotional state associated with perceived threat. In the psychoanalytic tradition, anxiety is seen as a signal that the control of the ego is being threatened by reality, by impulses from the id, or by harsh controls exerted by the superego. Freud identified three different types of anxiety: neurotic anxiety, moral anxiety, and objective anxiety. According to Rogers, the key terms 6-10 4  unpleasant emotional state of anxiety is the result of having an experience that does not fit with one's self-conception. 3.arousal level and arousability: In Eysenck's original theory of extraversion, he held that extraverts had lower levels of cortical or brain arousal than introverts. Eysenck proposed that introverts are characterized by higher levels of activity in the brain's ascending reticular activating system (ARAS) than are extraverts More recent research suggests that the difference between introverts and extraverts lies more in the arousability of their nervous systems, with extraverts showing less arousability or reactivity than introverts to the same levels of sensory stimulation. 4.Ascending Reticular Activating System (ARAS): Incoming nerve fibers running through the reticular formation that influences physiological arousal- without this we would have continuous sleep 5.autonomic nervous system (ANS): That part of the peripheral nervous system that connects to vital bodily structures associated with maintaining life and responding to emergencies (e. g. , storing and releasing energy), such as the beating of the heart, respiration, and controlling blood pressure. There are two divisions of the ANS: the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches. 6.behavioral activation system (BAS): In Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory, the system that is responsive to incentives, such as cues for reward, and regulates approach behavior. When some stimulus is recognized as potentially rewarding, the BAS triggers approach behavior. This system is highly correlated with the trait of extraversion. 7.behavioral inhibition system (BIS): In Gray's reinforcement sensitivity theory, the system responsive to cues for punishment, frustration, and uncertainty. The effect of BIS activation is to cease or inhibit behavior or to bring about avoidance behavior. This system is highly correlated with the trait of neuroticism. 8.cardiac reactivity: The increase in blood pressure and heart rate during times of stress. Evidence suggests that chronic cardiac reactivity contributes to coronary artery disease. 9.circadian rhythms: Many biological processes fluctuate around an approximate 24- to 25-hour cycle. These are called circadian rhythms (circa = around; dia = day). Circadian rhythms in temporal isolation studies have been found to be as key terms 6-10 5  short as 16 hours in one person, and as long as 50 hours in another person (Wehr & Goodwin, 1981). 10.comorbidity: The presence of two or more disorders of any type in one person. 11.cortisol: A stress hormone that prepares the body to flee or fight. Increases in cortisol in the blood indicate that the animal has recently experienced stress. 12.dopamine: A neurotransmitter that appears to be associated with pleasure. Dopamine appears to function something like the "reward system" and has even been called the "feeling good" chemical (Hamer, 1997). 13.electrode: A sensor usually placed on the surface of the skin and linked to a physiological recording machine (often called a polygraph) to measure physiological variables. 14.electrodermal activity (skin conductance): (also known as galvanic skin response or skin conductance) Electricity will flow across the skin with less resistance if that skin is made damp with sweat. Sweating on the palms of the hands is activated by the sympathetic nervous system, and so electrodermal activity is a way to directly measure changes in the sympathetic nervous system. 15.electroencephalograph (EEG): The brain spontaneously produces small amounts of electricity, which can be measured by electrodes placed on the scalp. EEGs can provide useful information about patterns of activation in different regions of the brain that may be associated with different types of information processing tasks. 16.free running: A condition in studies of circadian rhythms in which participants are deprived from knowing what time it is (e.g., meals are served when the participant asks for them, not at prescheduled times). When a person is free running in time, there are no time cues to influence behavior or biology. 17.frontal brain asymmetry: Asymmetry in the amount of activity in the left and right part of the frontal hemispheres of the brain. Studies using EEG measures have linked more relative left brain activity with pleasant emotions and more relative right brain activity with negative emotions. 18.harm avoidance: In Cloninger's tridimensional personality model, the personality trait of harm avoidance is associated with low levels of serotonin. People low in serotonin are sensitive to unpleasant stimuli or to stimuli or events that have been associated with punishment or pain. Consequently, people low in key terms 6-10 6  serotonin seem to expect that harmful and unpleasant events will happen to them, and they are constantly vigilant for signs of such threatening events 19.impulsivity: A personality trait that refers to lowered self-control, especially in the presence of potentially rewarding activities, the tendency to act before one thinks, and a lowered ability to anticipate the consequences of one's behavior. 20.monoamine oxidase (MAO): An enzyme found in the blood that is known to regulate neurotransmitters, those chemicals that carry messages between nerve cells. MAO may be a causal factor in the personality trait of sensation seeking. 21.morningness-eveningness: The stable differences between persons in preferences for being active at different times of the day. The term was coined to refer to this dimension (Horne & Osterberg, 1976). Differences between morning- and evening-types of persons appear to be due to differences in the length of their underlying circadian biological rhythms. 22.neurotransmitters: Chemicals in the nerve cells that are responsible for the transmission of a nerve impulse from one cell to another. Some theories of personality are based directly on different amounts of neurotransmitters found in the nervous system. 23.norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter involved in activating the sympathetic nervous system for flight or fight. 24.novelty seeking: In Cloninger's tridimensional personality model, the personality trait of novelty seeking is based on low levels of dopamine. Low levels of dopamine create a drive state to obtain substances or experiences that increase dopamine. Novelty and thrills and excitement can make up for low levels of dopamine, and so novelty-seeking behavior is thought to result from low levels of this neurotransmitter. 25.optimal level of arousal: Hebb believed that people are motivated to reach an optimal level of arousal. If they are underaroused relative to this level, an increase in arousal is rewarding; conversely, if they are overaroused, a decrease in arousal is rewarding. By optimal level of arousal, Hebb meant a level that is "just right" for any given task. 26.physiological systems: Organ systems within the body; for example, the nervous system (including the brain and nerves), the cardiac system (including the key terms 6-10 7  heart, arteries, and veins), and the musculoskeletal system (including the muscles and bones which make all movements and behaviors possible) 27.reinforcement sensitivity theory: Gray's biological theory of personality. Based on recent brain function research with animals, Gray constructed a model of human personality based on two hypothesized biological systems in the brain: the behavioral activation system (which is responsive to incentives, such as cues for reward, and regulates approach behavior) and the behavioral inhibition system (which is responsive to cues for punishment, frustration, and uncertainty). 28.reward dependence: In Cloninger's tridimensional personality model, the personality trait of reward dependence is associated with low levels of norepinephrine. People high on this trait are persistent; they continue to act in ways that produced reward. They work long hours, put a lot of effort into their work, and will often continue striving after others have given up. 29.sensation seeking: A dimension of personality postulated to have a physiological basis. It refers to the tendency to seek out thrilling and exciting activities, to take risks, and to avoid boredom. 30.sensory deprivation: Often done in a sound-proof chamber containing water in which a person floats, in total darkness, such that sensory input is reduced to a minimum. Researchers use sensory deprivation chambers to see what happens when a person is deprived of sensory input. 31.serotonin: A neurotransmitter that plays a role in depression and other mood disorders. Drugs such as Prozac, Zoloft, and Paxil block the reuptake of serotonin, leaving it in the synapse longer, leading depressed persons to feel less depressed. 32.telemetry: a process by which electrical signals are sent from the participant to the polygraph through radio waves instead of by wires 33.theoretical bridge: The connection between two different variables (for instance, dimensions of personality and physiological variables). 34.tridimensional personality model: Cloninger's tridimensional personality model ties three specific personality traits to levels of the three neurotransmitters. The first trait is called novelty seeking and is based on low levels of dopamine. The second personality trait is harm avoidance, which he associates with low levels of serotonin. The third trait is reward dependence, which Cloninger sees as related to low levels of norepinephrine. key terms 6-10 8  35.Type A personality: In the 1960s, cardiologists Friedman and Rosenman began to notice that many of their coronary heart disease patients had similar personality traits—they were competitive, aggressive workaholics, were ambitious overachievers, were often hostile, were almost always in a hurry, and rarely relaxed or took it easy. Friedman and Rosenman referred to this as the Type A personality, formally defined as "an action-emotion complex that can be observed in any person who is aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if required to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons" (1974, p. 37). As assessed by personality psychologists, Type A refers to a syndrome of several traits: (1) achievement motivation and competitiveness; (2) time urgency; and (3) hostility and aggressiveness. Chapter 8: Evolutionary Perspectives on Psychology 1.Natural Selection: Darwin reasoned that variants that better enabled an organism to survive and reproduce would lead to more descendants. The descendants, therefore, would inherit the variants that led to their ancestors' survival and reproduction. Through this process, the successful variants were selected, and unsuccessful variants weeded out. Natural selection, therefore, results in gradual changes in a species over time, as successful variants increase in frequency and eventually spread throughout the gene pool, replacing the less successful variants. 2.Hostile Forces of Nature: Hostile forces of nature are what Darwin called any event that impedes survival. Hostile forces of nature include food shortages, diseases, parasites, predators, and extremes of weather. 3.Sexual Selection: The evolution of characteristics because of their mating benefits rather than because of their survival benefits. According to Darwin, sexual selection takes two forms: intrasexual competition and intersexual selection. 4.Intrasexual Competition: In Darwin's intrasexual competition, members of the same sex compete with each other, and the outcome of their contest gives the winner greater sexual access to members of the opposite sex. Two stags locking horns in combat is the prototypical image of this. The characteristics that lead to success in contests of this kind, such as greater strength, intelligence, or key terms 6-10 9  attractiveness to allies, evolve because the victors are able to mate more often and hence pass on more genes. 5.Intersexual Selection: In Darwin's intersexual selection, members of one sex choose a mate based on their preferences for particular qualities in that mate. These characteristics evolve because animals that possess them are chosen more often as mates, and their genes thrive. Animals that lack the desired characteristics are excluded from mating, and their genes perish. 6.Genes: Packets of DNA that are inherited by children from their parents in distinct chunks. They are the smallest discrete units that are inherited by offspring intact, without being broken up. 7.Differential Gene Reproduction: Reproductive success relative to others. The genes of organisms who reproduce more than others get passed down to future generations at a relatively greater frequency than the genes of those who reproduce less. Since survival is usually critical for reproductive success, characteristics that lead to greater survival get passed along. Since success in mate competition is also critical for reproductive success, qualities that lead to success in same-sex competition or to success at being chosen as a mate get passed along. Successful survival and successful mate competition, therefore, are both part of differential gene reproduction. 8.Inclusive Fitness Theory: Modern evolutionary theory based on differential gene reproduction. The "inclusive" part refers to the fact that the characteristics that affect reproduction need not affect the personal production of offspring; they can affect the survival and reproduction of genetic relatives as well. 9.Adaptive Problem: Anything that impedes survival or reproduction. All adaptations must contribute to fitness during the period of time in which they evolve by helping an organism survive, reproduce, or facilitate the reproductive success of genetic relatives. Adaptations emerge from and interact with recurrent structures of the world in a manner that solves adaptive problems and hence aids in reproductive success. 10.Xenophobia: The fear of strangers. Characteristics that were probably adaptive in ancestral environments, such as xenophobia, are not necessarily adaptive in modern environments. Some of the personality traits that make up human nature may be vestigial adaptations to an ancestral environment that no longer exists. key terms 6-10 10  11.Byproducts of Adaptations: Evolutionary mechanisms that are not adaptations but rather are byproducts of other adaptations. Our nose, for example, is clearly an adaptation designed for smelling. But the fact that we use our nose to hold up our eyeglasses is an incidental byproduct. 12.Evolutionary Byproduct: Incidental effects evolved changes that are not properly considered adaptations. For example, our noses hold up glasses, but that is not what the nose evolved for. 13.Evolutionary Noise: Random variations that are neutral with respect to selection. 14.Domain Specific: Adaptations are presumed to be domain specific in the sense that they are "designed" by the evolutionary process to solve a specialized adaptive problem. Domain specificity implies that selection tends to fashion specific mechanisms for each specific adaptive problem. 15.Functionality: The notion that our psychological mechanisms are designed to accomplish particular adaptive goals. 16.Deductive Reasoning Approach: The top-down, theory-driven method of empirical research. 17.Inductive Reasoning Approach: The bottom-up, data-driven method of empirical research. 18.Social Anxiety: Discomfort related to social interactions, or even to the anticipation of social interactions. Socially anxious persons appear to be overly concerned about what others will think. Baumeister and Tice propose that social anxiety is a species-typical adaptation that functions to prevent social exclusion. 19.Evolutionary-Predicted Sex Differences: Evolutionary psychology predicts that males and females will be the same or similar in all those domains where the sexes have faced the same or similar adaptive problems (e. g. , both sexes have sweat glands because both sexes have faced the adaptive problem of thermal regulation) and different when men and women have faced substantially different adaptive problems (e. g. , in the physical realm, women have faced the problem of childbirth and have therefore evolved adaptations that are lacking in men, such as mechanisms for producing labor contractions through the release of oxytocin into the bloodstream). key terms 6-10 11  20.Effective Polygyny: Because female mammals bear the physical burden of gestation and lactation, there is a considerable sex difference in minimum obligatory parental investment. This difference leads to differences in the variances in reproduction between the sexes: most females will have some offspring, while a few males will sire many offspring, and some will have none at all. This is known as effective polygyny. 21.Sexually Dimorphic: Species that show high variance in reproduction within one sex tend to be highly sexually dimorphic, or highly different in size and structure. The more intense the effective polygyny, the more dimorphic the sexes are in size and form (Trivers, 1985). 22.Reactively Heritable: Traits that are secondary consequences of heritable traits. 23.Frequency-Dependent Selection: In some contexts, two or more heritable variants can evolve within a population. The most obvious example is biological sex itself. Within sexually reproducing species, the two sexes exist in roughly equal numbers because of frequency-dependent selection. If one sex becomes rare relative to the other, evolution will produce an increase in the numbers of the rarer sex. Frequency-dependent selection, in this example, causes the frequency of men and women to remain roughly equal. Different personality extremes (e. g. , introversion and extraversion) may be the result of frequency dependent selection. 24.Restricted Sexual Strategy: According to Gangestad and Simpson (1990), a woman seeking a high-investing mate would adopt a restricted sexual strategy marked by delayed intercourse and prolonged courtship. This would enable her to assess the man's level of commitment, detect the existence of prior commitments to other women and/or children, and simultaneously signal to the man the woman's sexual fidelity and, hence, assure him of his paternity of future offspring. 25.Unrestricted Mating Strategy: According to Gangestad and Simpson (1990), a woman seeking a man for the quality of his genes is not interested in his level of commitment to her. If the man is pursuing a short-term sexual strategy, any delay on the woman's part may deter him from seeking sexual intercourse with her, thus defeating the main adaptive reason for her mating strategy. 26.Psychopathy: A term often used synonymously with the antisocial personality disorder. It is used to refer to individual differences in antisocial characteristics. key terms 6-10 12  27.Balancing Selection: This maintains personality differences, and occurs when genetic variation is maintained by selection because different levels on a trait dimension are adaptive in different environments. Chapter 9: Psychoanalytic Approaches to Personality 1.psychic energy: According to Sigmund Freud, a source of energy within each person that motivates him or her to do one thing and not another. In Freud's view, it is this energy that motivates all human activity. 2.instincts: Freud believed that strong innate forces provided all the energy in the psychic system. He called these forces instincts. In Freud's initial formulation there were two fundamental categories of instincts: self-preservation instincts and sexual instincts. In his later formulations, Freud collapsed the self-preservation and sexual instincts into one, which he called the life instinct. 3.libido: Freud postulated that humans have a fundamental instinct toward destruction and that this instinct is often manifest in aggression toward others. The two instincts were usually referred to as libido, for the life instinct, and thanatos, for the death instinct. While the libido was generally considered sexual in nature, Freud also used this term to refer to any need-satisfying, life-sustaining, or pleasure-oriented urge. 4.thanatos: Freud postulated that humans have a fundamental instinct toward destruction and that this instinct is often manifest in aggression toward others. The two instincts were usually referred to as libido, for the life instinct, and thanatos, for the death instinct. While thanatos was considered to be the death instinct, Freud also used this term to refer to any urge to destroy, harm, or aggress against others or oneself. 5.conscious: The part of the mind that contains all thoughts, feelings, and images that a person is presently aware of. Whatever a person is currently thinking about is in his or her conscious mind. 6.preconscious: Any information that a person is not presently aware of, but that could easily be retrieved and made conscious, is found in the preconscious mind. 7.unconscious: The unconscious mind is the part of the mind about which the conscious mind has no awareness. key terms 6-10 13  8.blindsight: Following an injury or stroke that damages the primary vision center in the brain, a person may lose some or all of his or her ability to see. In this blindness the eyes still bring information to the brain, but the brain center responsible for object recognition fails. People who suffer this "cortical" blindness often display an interesting capacity to make judgments about objects that they truly cannot see. 9.deliberation-without-awareness: The notion that, when confronted with a decision, if a person can put it out of their conscious mind for a period of time, then the "unconscious mind" will continue to deliberate on it, helping the person to arrive at a "sudden" and often correct decision some time later. 10.id: The most primitive part of the human mind. Freud saw the id as something we are born with and as the source of all drives and urges. The id is like a spoiled child: selfish, impulsive, and pleasure loving. According to Freud, the id operates strictly according to the pleasure principle, which is the desire for immediate gratification. 11.pleasure principle: The desire for immediate gratification. The id operates according to the pleasure principle; therefore, it does not listen to reason, does not follow logic, has no values or morals (other than immediate gratification), and has very little patience. 12.primary process thinking: Thinking without the logical rules of conscious thought or an anchor in reality. Dreams and fantasies are examples of primary process thinking. Although primary process thought does not follow the normal rules of reality (e.g., in dreams people might fly or walk through walls), Freud believed there were principles at work in primary process thought and that these principles could be discovered. 13.wish fulfillment: If an urge from the id requires some external object or person, and that object or person is not available, the id may create a mental image or fantasy of that object or person to satisfy its needs. Mental energy is invested in that fantasy and the urge is temporarily satisfied. This process is called wish fulfillment, whereby something unavailable is conjured up and the image of it is temporarily satisfying. 14.ego: The part of the mind that constrains the id to reality. According to Freud, it develops within the first two or three years of life. The ego operates according to the reality principle. The ego understands that the urges of the id are often in key terms 6-10 14  conflict with social and physical reality, and that direct expression of id impulses must therefore be redirected or postponed. 15.reality principle: In psychoanalysis, it is the counterpart of the pleasure principle. It refers to guiding behavior according to the demands of reality and relies on the strengths of the ego to provide such guidance. 16.secondary process thinking: The ego engages in secondary process thinking, which refers to the development and devising of strategies for problem solving and obtaining satisfaction. Often this process involves taking into account the constraints of physical reality, about when and how to express some desire or urge. 17.superego: The part of personality that internalizes the values, morals, and ideals of society. The superego makes us feel guilty, ashamed, or embarrassed when we do something wrong, and makes us feel pride when we do something right. The superego sets moral goals and ideals of perfection and is the source of our judgments that something is good or bad. It is what some people refer to as conscience. The main tool of the superego in enforcing right and wrong is the emotion of guilt. 18.ego depletion: When exertion of self-control results in a decrease of psychic energy. 19.defense mechanisms: Strategies for coping with anxiety and threats to self- esteem. 20.objective anxiety: Fear occurs in response to some real, external threat to the person. For example, being confronted by a large, aggressive-looking man with a knife while taking a shortcut through an alley would elicit objective anxiety (fear) in most people. 21.neurotic anxiety: Occurs when there is a direct conflict between the id and the ego. The danger is that the ego may lose control over some unacceptable desire of the id. For example, a man who worries excessively that he might blurt out some unacceptable thought or desire in public is beset by neurotic anxiety. 22.moral anxiety: Caused by a conflict between the id or the ego and the superego. For example, a person who suffers from chronic shame or feelings of guilt over not living up to "proper" standards, even though such standards might not be attainable, is experiencing moral anxiety. key terms 6-10 15  23.repression: One of the first defense mechanisms discussed by Freud; refers to the process of preventing unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or urges from reaching conscious awareness. 24.denial: When the reality of a particular situation is extremely anxiety provoking, a person may resort to the defense mechanism of denial. A person in denial insists that things are not the way they seem. Denial can also be less extreme, as when someone reappraises an anxiety-provoking situation so that it seems less daunting. Denial often shows up in people's daydreams and fantasies. 25.fundamental attribution error: When bad events happen to others, people have a tendency to attribute blame to some characteristic of the person, whereas when bad events happen to oneself, people have the tendency to blame the situation. 26.displacement: An unconscious defense mechanism that involves avoiding the recognition that one has certain inappropriate urges or unacceptable feelings (e.g., anger, sexual attraction) toward a specific other. Those feelings then get displaced onto another person or object that is more appropriate or acceptable. 27.rationalization: A defense mechanism that involves generating acceptable reasons for outcomes that might otherwise be unacceptable. The goal is to reduce anxiety by coming up with an explanation for some event that is easier to accept than the "real" reason. 28.reaction formation: A defense mechanism that refers to an attempt to stifle the expression of an unacceptable urge; a person may continually display a flurry of behavior that indicates the opposite impulse. Reaction formation makes it possible for psychoanalysts to predict that sometimes people will do exactly the opposite of what you might otherwise think they would do. It also alerts us to be sensitive to instances when a person is doing something in excess. One of the hallmarks of reaction formations is excessive behavior. 29.projection: A defense mechanism based on the notion that sometimes we see in others those traits and desires that we find most upsetting in ourselves. We literally "project" (i.e. attribute) our own unacceptable qualities onto others. 30.false consensus effect: The tendency many people have to assume that others are similar to them (i.e., extraverts think that many other people are as key terms 6-10 16  extraverted as they are). Thinking that many other people share your own traits, preferences, or motivations. 31.sublimation: A defense mechanism that refers to the channeling of unacceptable sexual or aggressive instincts into socially desired activities. For Freud, sublimation is the most adaptive defense mechanism. A common example is going out to chop wood when you are angry rather than acting on that anger or even engaging in other less adaptive defense mechanisms such as displacement. 32.psychosexual stage theory: According to Freud, all persons pass through a set series of stages in personality development. At each of the first three stages, young children must face and resolve specific conflicts, which revolve around ways of obtaining a type of sexual gratification. Children seek sexual gratification at each stage by investing libidinal energy in a specific body part. Each stage in the developmental process is named after the body part in which sexual energy is invested. 33.fixation: According to Erikson, if a developmental crisis is not successfully and adaptively resolved, personality development could become arrested and the person would continue to have a fixation on that crisis in development. According to Freud, if a child fails to fully resolve a conflict at a particular stage of development, he or she may get stuck in that stage. If a child is fixated at a particular stage, he or she exhibits a less mature approach to obtaining sexual gratification. 34.oral stage: The first stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development. This stage occurs during the initial 18 months after birth. During this time, the main sources of pleasure and tension reduction are the mouth, lips, and tongue. Adults who still obtain pleasure from "taking in," especially through the mouth (e.g. people who overeat or smoke or talk too much) might be fixated at this stage. 35.anal stage: The second stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development. The anal stage typically occurs between the ages of 18 months and three years. At this stage, the anal sphincter is the source of pleasure, and the child obtains pleasure from first expelling feces and then, during toilet training, from retaining feces. Adults who are compulsive, overly neat, rigid, and never messy are, according to psychoanalytic theory, likely to be fixated at the anal stage. 36.phallic stage: The third stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development. It occurs between three and five years of age, during which time the child key terms 6-10 17  discovers that he has (or she discovers that she does not have) a penis. This stage also includes the awakening of sexual desire directed, according to Freud, toward the parent of the opposite sex. 37.Oedipal conflict: For boys, the main conflict in Freud's phallic stage. In is a boy's unconscious wish to have his mother all to himself by eliminating the father. (Oedipus is a character in a Greek myth who unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother.) 38.castration anxiety: Freud argued that little boys come to believe that their fathers might make a preemptive Oedipal strike and take away what is at the root of the Oedipal conflict: the boy's penis. This fear of losing his penis is called castration anxiety; it drives the little boy into giving up his sexual desire for his mother. 39.identification: A developmental process in children. It consists of wanting to become like the same-sex parent. In classic psychoanalysis, it marks the beginning of the resolution of the Oedipal or Electra conflicts and stage of psychosexual development. Freud believed that the resolution of the phallic stage was both the beginning of the superego and morality and the start of the adult gender role. 40.penis envy: the female counterpart of castration anxiety, which occurs during development for girls around 3 to 5 years of age. 41.Electra complex: Within the psychoanalytic theory of personality development, the female counterpart to the Oedipal complex; both refer to the phallic stage of development. 42.latency stage: The fourth stage in Freud's psychosexual stages of development. This stage occurs from around the age of six until puberty. Freud believed few specific sexual conflicts existed during this time, and was thus a period of psychological rest or latency. Subsequent psychoanalysts have argued that much development occurs during this time, such as learning to make decisions for oneself, interacting and making friends with others, developing an identity, and learning the meaning of work. The latency period ends with the sexual awakening brought about by puberty. 43.genital stage: The final stage in Freud's psychosexual stage theory of development. This stage begins around age 12 and lasts through one's adult life. key terms 6-10 18  Here the libido is focused on the genitals, but not in the manner of self- manipulation associated with the phallic stage. People reach the genital stage with full psychic energy if they have resolved the conflicts at the prior stages. 44.psychoanalysis: A theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy (a technique for helping individuals who are experiencing some mental disorder or even relatively minor problems with living.) Psychoanalysis can be thought of as a theory about the major components and mechanisms of personality, as well as a method for deliberately restructuring personality. 45.free association: Patients relax, let their minds wander, and say whatever comes into their minds. Patients often say things that surprise or embarrass them. By relaxing the censor that screens everyday thoughts, free association allow potentially important material into conscious awareness. 46.dream analysis: A technique Freud taught for uncovering the unconscious material in a dream by interpreting the content of a dream. Freud called dreams, "the royal road to the unconscious." 47.manifest content: The manifest content of a dream is, according to Freud, what the dream actually contains. 48.latent content: The latent content of a dream is, according to Freud, what the elements of the dream actually represent. 49.symbols: Psychoanalysts interpret dreams by deciphering how unacceptable impulses and urges are transformed by the unconscious into symbols in the dream. (For example, parents may be represented as a king and queen; children may be represented as small animals.) 50.projective hypothesis: The idea that what a person "sees" in an ambiguous figure, such as an inkblot, reflects his or her personality. People are thought to project their own personalities into what they report seeing in such an ambiguous stimulus. 51.interpretations: One of the three levels of cognition that are of interest to personality psychologists. Interpretation is the making sense of, or explaining, various events in the world. Psychoanalysts offer patients interpretations, patients are gradually led to an understanding of the unconscious source of their problems. key terms 6-10 19  52.insight: In psychoanalysis, through many interpretations, a patient is gradually led to an understanding of the unconscious source of his or her problems. This understanding is called insight. 53.resistance: When a patient's defenses are threatened by a probing psychoanalyst, the patient may unconsciously set up obstacles to progress. This stage of psychoanalysis is called resistance. Resistance signifies that important unconscious material is coming to the fore. The resistance itself becomes an integral part of the interpretations the analyst offers to the patient. 54.transference: A term from psychoanalytic therapy. It refers to the patient reacting to the analyst as if he or she were an important figure from the patient's own life. The patient displaces past or present (negative and positive) feelings toward someone from his or her own life onto the analyst. The idea behind transference is that the interpersonal problems between a patient and the important people in his or her life will be reenacted in the therapy session with the analyst. This is a specific form of the mechanism of evocation, as described in the material on person-situation interaction. 55.motivated unconscious: The psychoanalytic idea that information that is unconscious can actually motivate or influence subsequent behavior. This notion was promoted by Freud and formed the basis for his ideas about the unconscious sources of mental disorders and other problems with living. Many psychologists agree with the idea of the unconscious, but there is less agreement today about whether information that is unconscious can have much of an influence on actual behavior. 56.repitition compulsion: The idea that people create or repeat their interpersonal problems over and over with different people in their lives. This notion underlies the psychoanalytic transference, wherein the patient recreates the interpersonal difficulties they have in their everyday life with the analyst during the course of their treatment Chapter 10: Motives and Personality 1.alpha press: real environment (objective) 2.ambition needs: need for achievement, order, and exhibition key terms 6-10 20  3.anxiety: According to Carl Rogers, the result of having an experience that does not fit one's self concept 4.apperception: work of Murray, act of interpreting environment and perceiving meaning of what is happening in a situation 5.belongingness needs: needs to belong to groups and be accepted by others 6.beta press: perceived environment (subjective) 7.characteristics of self-actualizers: being accepting of self, others, nature, and fate; having democratic values; being problem focused; having a beginners's mind; having a desire to help human-kind; resistant to enculturation 8.client-centered therapy: instead of giving directions and interpretations, therapist reflects back client's thoughts to set conditions for client to change self. Has core conditions of genuine acceptance, unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding 9.conditional positive regard: positive regard that is only given when certain requirements are met; promotes dependence and prevents self-actualization 10.conditions of worth: requirements set by others for earning positive regard 11.distortion: defense mechanism of anxiety to alter experience instead of self- concept 12.dynamic: refers to mutual influence of forces within a person 13.emotional intelligence: ability to know and regulate one's emotions, motivate oneself, and know and influence how others are feeling; related to self-actualizing tendency 14.empathic understanding: understanding the person from their point of view 15.esteem needs: needs to be seen as competent and respected and feel worthwhile and valued 16.extrinsic motivation: performed for instrumental reasons, based on social responses; reward seeking and less autonomous by nature 17.flow: subjective state reported when one is immersed in something to point of forgetting everything else; balance between skills and challenge with clear feedback and goal key terms 6-10 21  18.fully functioning person: person who is on path to self-actualization; they are open to experiences, trust themselves, are responsible to themself, and are centered in the present 19.hierarchy of needs: murray's theory that different needs exist at different strengths within an individual 20.humanistic tradition: emphasis on conscious awareness of needs, choices, and responsibility; need for growth and realization of one's fullpotential 21.implicit motives: motives based on needs (big 3) as they are measured in fantasy based measures (TAT) 22.independence training: promotes high achievement motive by promoting autonomy and independence 23.individualistic cultures: promote less dependence which promotes intrinsic motivation 24.Intrinsic motivation: self-determined based on inherent satisfaction directly associated with the behaviours; not contingent on reinforcements; stronger predictor of academic success and positive psychological outcomes 25.Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: system with deficiency related needs at bottom and self-actualization need at top 26.midlife crisis: desire to resume responsibility for one's life 27.motives: internal stats that arouse and direct behaviour toward specific objects or goals; caused by a deficit and often based on needs 28.multi-motive grid: combines features of TAT with self-report questionnaires that target motivational states, focus on big 3 motives 29.Murray's definition of needs: potentiality/readiness to respond in a certain way under certain circumstances 30.need for achievement: desire to do better, be successful, feel competent; high in this domain prefer moderate challenges, personal responsibility, and feedback 31.need for intimacy: desire for warm and fulfilling relationships with others; preference/readiness for warm, close, and communicative interactions 32.need for power: readiness or preference for having an impact on people 33.needs: states of tension within a person key terms 6-10 22  34.needs related to social power: needs for abasement, aggression, autonomy, and blame avoidance 35.needs to defend status: dominance; influence others behaviour and control environment 36.person-centered approach: Carl Roger's idea of approach to getting person back on track towards their potential 37.physiological needs: needs related to short term survival of self and long term survival of species 38.positive regard: inborn desire to be loved and accepted by parents and others 39.power stress: result of obstacles that block or challenge a person's need for power 40.press: refers to need-relevant aspects of the environment; needs only affect behaviour in appropriate environments 41.profligate impulsive behaviors: behaviours such as drinking, aggression, and sexual exploitation; less likely to occur with responsibility training 42.safety needs: needs related to shelter and security; being free from danger 43.self-actualization needs: needs to develop one's potential and become who you are meant to be 44.self-attributed motives: responses to immediate and specific situations; choice behaviours and attitudes; best predicted with questionnaires 45.social affection needs: need for affiliation, nurturance, and succor 46.state levels of needs: person's momentary amount of a specific need given a situation; TAT is sensitive to these changes 47.Thematic Apperception Test: black and white ambiguous photos, asked to interpret what is happening; researchers code stories according to categories of (implicit) motives; predicts long term, spontaneous behavioural trends 48.trait levels of needs: measuring a person's average tendency, or their set point, on the specific trait; determine differences in average tendencies toward particular need; measured by averaging across multiple items of TAT 49.unconditional positive regard: accepting child as they are without conditions; puts child in better position to self-actualize key terms 6-10 23