Khan Psychology: Temperament, Personality, and Twin Studies PDF

**Temperament** -- broader than personality. It's their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. **Persistent** as person ages. o There is a differences between children, no...

**Temperament** -- broader than personality. It's their characteristic emotional reactivity, intensity, - their shyness and their sociability. Temperament seems to be established before babies are exposed to environment. **Persistent** as person ages. o There is a differences between children, not all people have the same as temperament. Babies/children's/people have different ways they respond to environment/parents. Ex. One Baby can be relaxed (easy), another irritable/tense (difficult) and another can show flat affect (withdrawn). We can differentiation babies in other ways as well. § The withdrawn person is more likely to be withdrawn as an adult. o *Temperament is hard-wired into us at birth! And persistent as we age.* **Personality**, unlike psychological characteristics/abnormalities is believed to be **constant** over a person's lifetime. o Is our personality hard-wired and persistent as we age? What about our gender identity? or intelligence? Twin Studies and Adoption Studies Important in behavioral, social, and health sciences Allows us to tease apart **nature** (what we inherit from our parents, DNA) and **nurture** (our environments -- our surroundings, peers, where we live) Classical twin study -- compare monozygotic + dizygotic each raised in same household Monozygotic twins (identical) vs. dizygotic twins (fraternal) o Monozygotic Twins -- egg splits into 2 after fertilization. Share 100% of genes, genetically identical. 130 o Dizygotic Twins -- develop from 2 separately fertilized eggs. Share 50% of genes, like regular siblings. o Both share same environment in womb, and also share same parents. Both types of twins eat the same food at the same time. So both can be said to share 100% environment. o Regular siblings don't share 100%, similar environments, but can vary depending on parenting/age. More similar environments between each other than someone random, but parents change their parenting style for each kid and one of the siblings experiences different environments before the other sibling is born. § Siblings might have different friends and have different teachers in school. Twins have a much higher similar environments for all of these reasons. Ex. What causes schizophrenia? o Nature -- genetic component o Nurture -- environmental component § Ex. You can find a correlation between a parent and a kid having schizophrenia but it could be entirely possible that there is only a nurture (environmental component) such as something in the water. o Goal of researchers is to isolate genes and the environments. Look at one without the other to see what causes the disorder. § Monozygotic twins vs. dizygotic twins -- can hold environment constant. Examine effect of genes. If schizophrenia was genetic, we would expect to see different rates in identical vs. fraternal twins. Higher in identical twins. But if environmental, similar rates of disorder in both sets of twins. Wouldn't matter if they were identical vs. fraternal. They share 100% of the environments. *Problems with twin studies:* identical twins treated more similarly than fraternal twins are. This would mean that monozygotic twins share even "more" of same environments than fraternal twins. **Adoption studies** -- adopted child is compared to biological family and their adopted family. Biological parents have shared gene to an adopted child but the parents (or other twin who grew up with biological parents) will have markedly different environments o If environmental factor plays a big role, the adoptive child would be similar to adoptive parent and dissimilar to parents. o If genetics is a predominate player, the adoptive child would be similar to biological parent and not the adoptive parent.. o *Problems with adoption studies*: incomplete info about biological families for adoptive children. Also adoption isn't random, adoptive family sometimes matched to be similar to the biological family (of having the same community or 131 culture). Makes it more difficult to understand if something is genetic or environmentally driven. Adoption and Twin studies can be combined is great to study disorders- if they have a genetic or nature component! Identical twins adopted by different family -- genetically similar, different environments. o If rates between Identical twins raised together = Identical twins raised apart would be an indicator that genes play a factor o But if rates between identical twins raised together is not equal to identical twins raised apart = strong environmental component But again, families who adopt are usually similar (not as different of an environment as we might suspect). Adoptive parents tend to be wealthy, have similar environments to child's biological parents. Recap. When comparing rates to determine if something has a strong environmental or genetic component: o Strong genetic component: § Identical twins =/= Fraternal Twins § Identical twins raised together = Identical twins raised apart § Adoptive child = Biological parents o Strong Environmental component: § Identical twins = Fraternal Twins § Identical twins raised together = /= Identical twins raised apart § Adoptive child = adoptive parents 132 Heritability **Heritability:** Variability of traits can be attributed to differences in genes. o Percentage of variation of traits due to genes o Heritability estimates define the amount of variance that can be attributed to genes in specific subgroups of individuals. Assume we say heritability of intelligence (a trait) is 50%. NOT saying that intelligence is 50% genetic, saying that the difference in intelligence is 50% attributable by genes. o Ex. Four boys with a 100% controlled environments, yet IQ still is different between the boys. Difference couldn't be attributed to environment, so we'd say their IQ differences were 100% heritable because environment was 100% same. § Heritability = h\^2. So h\^2 = 99% /0.99... Close to 100%/1 o Alternatively you can say 4 identical quadruplets (genetically identical), but completely different environments. Since variability can't be due to genes, must be environmentally-determined. Therefore, h\^2 = 0%/0.00 o Heritability increases in following: As environments becomes more controlled, differences in behavioral traits are tied to heritability. Secondly, more genetic variation leads to greater heritability. § ex. Fraternal quadruplets, w/ way more different phenotypes. the differences are tied to the genes/heritability as well if environments is kept constant 133 § In heritability we are talking about the relative contributions of genes to behaviors or traits. o Heritability is dependent on population that is studied. Heritability is specific to the population studied and would likely be different in different environments. Heritability *does not* describe the amount of individuals with a specific gene or disorder. Heritability is *not* a broad estimate of nature versus nurture in a general population. Minnesota Study: o Religiosity in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.49 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. o Personality in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.50 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. o Information processing speed in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.56 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. o Intelligence in monozygotic twins has a coefficient of correlation value of 0.69 based on the Minnesota twin studies reared apart data. Regulatory Genes **Molecular Genetics --** a new field of science that looks at the molecular structure and function of genes. As we study gene and environments interaction we are getting to understand specific gene that is regulating our behavior. We are looking at specific parts of DNA Watson & Crick discovered structure of DNA, and gave rise to **central dogma** of molecular genetics. Segments of DNA codes for RNA (ribonucleic acids). Units of RNA (called codons) will code for 1 of 20 amino acids, and eventually become building blocks of proteins, which affects our behavior. o Proteins form the intermediate point between our genes and our behavior (body functioning/response to environments) o Now, studies are saying that the genes don't play as large of a role. § Example. Steroids (environmental factors) /hormones effect our behavior. \[Reminder: Steroids that produce different responses in our body is an activation of genes to produce proteins\]. Pheromones do the same thing (environmental/outside factors) that are causing a response (turning on genes) that result in a function. This is a switch from central dogma a bit (which is DNAà RNA à proteins to now a bit of the reverse, some of the environments is now effecting our proteins) o Gene Regulation: modulatory world of gene expression (gene expression modulated by environmental factor). Greatest achievements in clarifying the modulatory factors we have had mapped our entire genome - **gene mapping** of all genes on the 46 chromosomes. Because of genome now we can look at populations which share traits and not have to rely on twin/adoption studies to narrow down heritability of traits. Now, we can look at population of shared 134 traits and look at genes that code for those traits and compare/contrast those genes. § Scientists who study gene mapping look at populations with shared traits and compare their genetic profiles. They also may look at damage to DNA in a person's genome. We can now look at genes that may contribute to a trait, and compare and contrast. We found that a vast majority of our genes, 95% don't code for proteins, but regulate how proteins are coded (when and how it is expressed). \[Ex. If we experience sugar consumption, then we code for the protein hormone insulin\]. Called **epigenetics** -- changes to gene expression resulting from changes other than to gene/DNA sequence. Ex. Addition of methyl groups to the gene, which make it more difficult for TFs to come in and activate gene. \[Methylation inhibits activation of certain genes.\]. Epigenetics can override our behavior. o Epigenetics is the study of changes in gene expression that results in something other than changes to a DNA sequence. One epigenetic change is methylation, which can make it more difficult for a gene to be expressed. Gene Environment Interaction Nature vs. nurture. **Gene-Environment Interaction:** Gene + environments effect our Behavior, and the role of genes + environments on behavior is dependent on each other. \[Explains Nature through nurture\] o Ex. Attractive baby and hideous baby. As a result, attractive baby receives more attention and is more sociable and well adjusted. But say both have genes that predispose for depression, that are triggered/activated by environment (stressors). Beautiful baby's genes are not activated because it has reduced transmitters, while ugly baby's genes are making proteins all the time since his life is tougher. Both DNA/genes play a role in genetic disposition but also environments plays a role. Another example is **phenylketonuria (PKU)**, caused by mutations to a gene that encodes a liver enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase (PAH). But because enzyme is missing, amino acid phenylalanine doesn't get converted into tyrosine. A genetic condition that causes a build-up of phenylalanine which then cause brain problems. (1 in 15k babies effected, but most babies are unaffected). o Symptoms of PKU can be managed by a specific diet, which is a less problematic environment for the individual with PKU. § During infant screening, placed on these effected individuals placed on phenylalanine-free diet, and most grow up without major problems. o Gene + environments = initiate bodies behavior. § The expression of PKU is dependent on the environment. § Even though PKU is highly heritable, it is still modifiable and can be managed via the environment. 135 A study that looks at the interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental events is looking at gene-environment interaction, not epigenetics. Adaptive Value of Behavioral Traits **Function of behavior** -- to keep **homeostasis** - a maintained of a constant internal condition. Behavior is coordinated internal and external response of an organism/groups of organisms to their environment. Functioning in the realm of **adaptation** to help maintain our homeostasis. **Ethology** focuses on the observation of animal behaviours, call these **overt** behaviours (not necessarily obvious, just means *observable*). o *Innate behavior, learned behavior, and complex behaviours.* **Innate** behavioural traits -- genetically programmed behavior. present at birth and requires no experience with the environment. Have the following characteristics: o *Inherited* -- innate behaviours are encoded by DNA o *Intrinsic* -- present even if you're raised in isolation. Ex. Pooping, peeing, etc. o *Stereotypic* -- performed the same way each time. o *Inflexible* -- not modifiable by experience. o *Consummate* -- fully developed right away, at first performance. Not influenced by experience. § *Subject to change through mutation and recombination, natural selection* *etc (just like all other physical traits)* § Ex. Nausea in women during pregnancy helps them avoid toxic foods/novel-strongly flavored food in critical period of development. Thought of as *programmed.* o 3 main types of innate behavior: § **Reflexes** - Sensory and motor nerve loop response w/o thinking. (ex. Knee-jerk response. § **Orientation Behaviors --** regulating specially in our environments Ex. Kinesis, our change in speed (orthokinesis), change in rate in turning (klinokinesis). Can be in response to a stimulus (like tripping on a sidewalk -- your body would change speed/kinesis). Ex. *Positive taxis* and *Negative taxis* - , movement towards/away from stimulus respectively. Ex. Insects and light. Insects have positive taxis towards light (phototaxis) § **Fixed-action pattern (FAP) --** sequence of coordinated movement performed without interruption. Similar to a reflex, but more complicated. Ex. Praying mantis. Any prey-sized movement praying mantis experiences elicits a strike response, once strike initiated -- can't be changed/altered at all. **Learned** behavioural traits -- persistent changes in our behavior that result from our experiences. ot present at birth, but is acquired after experience with the environment. Have the following characteristics: 136 o *Non-inherited* -- acquired only through observation/experience o *Extrinsic* -- absent when animals are raised in isolation, ex. social skills o *Permutable* -- pattern/sequence that is *changeable* o *Adaptable* -- capable of being modified in response to changing conditions o *Progressive* -- subject to improvement or refined through practice over time **Complex** behavior -- combination of innate and learned behavior. Relationship between genes and environment in adaptation. Can be a spectrum, most behaviours fit between innate and learned. o Ex. ability of insects to fly, starts off as innate but through learning become more efficient in ability to fly. Genes/environments forms behavior and they also contribute to the adaptive role of these behaviors! **Covert behavior** - Covert behavior is behavior that is not observable. Motivation and Attitudes Physiological Concept of Positive and Negative Feedback **Positive feedback** -- process that increase production of product. One product stimulates production of another product. Ex. Domino or chain effect **Negative feedback**, rate or process that needs to be controlled to decrease product. Ex. In our body! o Negative feedback is put into place to inhibit production of product. Ex of positive and negative feedback in females: o Hypothalamus (releases GnRH) à pituitary (posterior -- back, anterior --front (releases LH) à ovaries (releases estrogen, progesterone) o Ovaries release estrogen. GnRH releases from hypothalamus and LH from pituitary. Ovaries release estrogen, positive feedback to hypothalamus, positive feedback to anterior pituitary and positive feedback to estrogen. Cycle continues. Eventually when estrogen § Estrogen à GnRH à LH à progesterone released from corpus luteum after ovulation when LH too high. Progesterone triggers negative feedback to GnRH/LH which turns off entire positive feedback process. How we maintain balance in our body. Instincts, Arousal, Needs, Drives: Drive-Reduction and Cognitive Theories Complex human experiences involve motivation. Motivation asks the question why? Why do we do we think and feel the way we do? ***Motivation** has 5 schools of thought/approaches::* o **Evolutionary** Approach-- role instincts play in motivation. What do humans do to survive? What is not-learned and just instinct. 137 § Ex. Think about baby, cries, sleep, eat. Basic instincts that all humans have. o **Drive Reduction Theory** / Drive Theory-- focuses on *drives vs. needs*. § **Need** is lack or deprivation that will energize the drive, or aroused state. § That **drive** is the aroused state. Fulfilling the drive will reduce the need. This need-drive balance is what maintains homeostasis. *Typically basic,* *essential, and physiological* § Ex. You are at the gym and need for water. Trainer says you need to do more exercise. In this example, need: water, drive: thirst. Doing push ups is means to fulfill drive for water. o **Optimum Arousal Theory** -- people want to reach full arousal/alertness. Drive to get full arousal, and natural high -- a state we enjoy. Ex. Why people go to amusement parks. o **Cognitive** -- (rational and decision making ability) - thought processes drive behavior. Ex. Light bulb going off in one's head. o **Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs** -- we want to satisfy needs in particular order. Why we use a pyramid. In reality, all approaches/schools of thought of motivation are related and help us learn motivation a bit better. **Id**- innate. The reservoir of all psychic energy. The id seeks to discharge tension arising from internal needs or external stimulation. It is made up of all instincts and wants to get rid of all uncomfortable feelings. (This is called a "Drive Reduction Theory"). o **"The pleasure principle"**- To gain pleasure or avoid pain. To accomplish this it uses: -*Reflex actions* (for instance sneezing) -*Primary Processes* (Forming a mental image of the desired object) - *Wish fulfillment*- The image of your desire which temporarily restores comfort. **Ego**- "The Reality Principle" - Operates on secondary processes. (Reality testing) Mediates the demands of reality vs. the desires of the Id. The self. This is who we identify with/believe ourselves to be. **Superego**- The internalization of cultural ideals and parental sanctions. "Morals" Interjection/Internalization. The Superego inhibits Sexual and Aggressive impulses, and tries to replace reality with morality, striving for perfection. The Superego has subsystems: - The Conscious - what you should not be "wrong" - The Ego Ideal - what you should/want to be "right" o If you think about this theory, its the classic angel(super-ego) and devil (id)on the shoulder telling you what to do. It is up to you to decide (ego), but if your conscious self (ego)is weak, you\'ll end up having one of the other two take overleading to an imbalance. This is why psychoanalytic therapy focuses on raising the intrapsychic conflicts to the conscious level. Motivation Terms: o The incentive theory of motivation calls attention to how factors outside of individuals, including community values and other aspects of culture, can motivate behavior. 138 o **Extrinsic Motivation:** Extrinsic motivation is associated with rewards or obligated behavior. Extrinsic motivation is motivation to do something based on an external reward (like money or fame). o **Intrinsic Motivation:** internal motivation o **Drive-reduction motivation** is motivation based on the need to fulfill a certain drive, like hunger or thirst. o **Amotivation** - Amotivation is the lack of motivation. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs - A pyramid. We have needs that must be fulfilled from bottom to top. *These needs must be fulfilled in a specific bottom*à *top* *order.* o Basic needs are most fundamental and at bottom. o There are 5 needs. § ***A*cronyms: Please Stop Liking Stupid Shit** § **Please Safely Love (OR) Else Suffer** 1. **Physiological** -- food, water, breathing, sleep. Essential to survive. *Basic need* 2. **Safety** -- safety of employment, health, resources, property. Can only be fulfilled after physiological needs are met. *Basic need.* o **Safety needs are associated with stability, security, protection, and freedom** **from threats.** 3. **Love --** need to belong, acceptance from friends/family intimacy, love. *Social* *needs/Belonging* 4. **Self-esteem --**feel confident and sense of achievement, recognition, competence of skill. *Respect.* 5. **Self-actualization** -- one reaching their maximal potential, achieving the most one can be. They were moral to their own principles and mastered the other needs. Differs from person to person. Different from person to person. *Maximum Potential* o *One can want to be ideal-parent, or ideal athlete or ideal-artist* 139 Incentive Theory Acronym: ILSE (incentive theory) POSTIVELY READ (positively reinforces) **Incentive Theory -** Reward, *intangible or tangible* is presented after the occurrence of an action w/ intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This causes a positive association and meaning toward a behavior. Focuses on conditioning/incentive to make a person happier. Incentive theory argues that individuals are motivated to engage in behaviors that produce rewards or incentives. o Ex. doing well at work and getting promotion (tangible). Or intangible - job satisfaction. o Ex. Incentive for football team is winning a game and getting recognition. Studies have shown that if a reward is given immediately, chance of it happening again is higher. If person isn't rewarded, they are less likely to do again. Rewards must be obtainable for them to be motivating. Can't be impossible to achieve. If impossible to get, someone becomes less motivated. **Incentive theory** focuses on **Positive reinforcement** is done through continuous positive stimulation. A positive reinforce is given after a response to increase the response. You need to be constantly given positive reinforces. A **negative reinforcement -** removal of a stimuli to encourage a response would, is not what incentive theory is focussed on. (this was **drive-reduction theory**) Skinner, most distinguished incentive theory psychologist said person will more likely do action that's positively received, and less likely to do action that is negatively received. As children we are given incentives from parents -- incentive theory at work! Biological and Sociocultural Factors -- Food, Sex, and Drugs Many factors that affect/ regulate our intake of *food, sex, and drugs.* 2 categories that regulate food, sex, and drugs are: **biological factors** (hormones and brain regulates each 140 drive by controlling them automatically and unconsciously) **and socio-culture** (our conscious choices on how we express our needs) factors Food (eating) o Biological: § Lateral Hypothalamus (LH, acronym: One with missing LH -- Lacks Hunger, so normal functioning LH controls that we start eating. You'd be skinny like an "L"). In normal conditions, LH sends positive signal to us to start eating.. § Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH, acronym: when one is missing- Very Much hungry, you'd be fat like a O in ventrOmedial), so when functioning properly, it signals to us to stop eating. Lectin present in high amounts in blood when full (appetite suppressing hormone) § Another hormone is insulin. Brain can detect level of insulin to see amount of sugar and fat store in blood. Too much insulin = lots of sugar/fat store. § Metabolism rate. In dieting we get a slowdown in metabolism. Makes it easier for people to gain weight when resuming normal eating. § Genetic predisposition to our weight, set point influenced by parents. o Sociocultural: § We Eat for different *occasions, time, desire, appeal, availability* Sex (sexual response) \-- o Investigated by Master & Johnson (Acronym: MJ loved Sex). They studied 100s of male and female volunteers during sexual activity. They measured the physiological indicators and they turned the results into the **Sexual response** **cycle.** o Biological: § **Sexual response cycle.** First part of cycle is *excitement phase*, marked by increased heart rate, muscle tension, BP, etc. Second is *plateau.* Then 3rd - orgasm. 4th is resolution/refractory period. 141 M&J also noted sexual drive/activity was related to testosterone for women and men (sexual activities increased testosterone which in turn increased the sex drive). § Also have genetic predisposition to sexuality, and found by looking this by studying at homosexuality. o Sociocultural: § varied sexual response due too: *age, cultural background* (certain practices acceptable in certain cultures but not others), *stimulus* *(*determined by how responsive we are to visual/tactile stimuli), *emotions* (psychological influence), and *desires* (to procreate or not). o Hormones: § Prolactin is related to sexual gratification and is associated with relieving sexual arousal after an orgasm. § Endorphins produce feelings of euphoria and pleasure, and are released post-orgasm. § Oxytocin is released after an orgasm to facilitate bonds and feelings of connectedness between sexual partners. Drugs o Biological: § Genetic: family member or family history/genetic predisposition -- then you have a higher chance of abusing the drug. § withdrawal and cravings, § biochemical factors -- imbalance in our brains § Drugs like marijuana and heroin mimic neurotransmitters of our brain. Cocaine causes the abnormal release of natural NTs like **dopamine** -- affects our limbic system. Dopamine overstimulates/activates our brain limbic system (which controls movement, emotion, motivation, pleasure). Why we perceive emotions and mood altering properties of drugs. We become in a state of euphoria -- total happiness. o If we continue to use a drug, we abuse the drug. **Reinforcing effect** -- we want to constantly stimulate the brain by using drugs. o Socio-culturally: curiosity, novelty of drug, rebel, poor control of user, cope with stress, low self-esteem (remember: one of Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, right below self-actualization), relief from fatigue, feel good, and more prevalent in areas of higher poverty Components of Attitude What is attitude? **Attitude** - A *learned tendency* to evaluate things in a certain way. To evaluate people, issues, events, objects. (We think of attitude as a moody teenager, or someone having certain attitude towards a certain topic). 142 We can break down attitude into 3 components. These components shape our attitude. o **Affective** (emotional) -- we may feel or have emotions about a certain object, topic, subject. § Ex: I am scared (an emotion) of spiders is an emotional attitude and shapers our attitude about spiders. o **Behavioural** - how we act or behave towards object/subject § Ex; I will avoid (action/behavior) spiders and scream (action/behavior) if I see one. Influence our attitude. o **Cognitive** component -form thoughts/beliefs, and have knowledge about subject/topic that will influence and shape our attitude (perhaps prior knowledge that will help you shape attitude). Their cognitions. § Ex: I believe spiders are dangerous (We have a belief they are dangerous) which forms our attitude. Called the **ABC model of attitude** Example 1: "I love yoga because I get to mediate and I believe it helps me relax so I will go to class each week." -- 'I love yoga' is emotional,' I believe it helps me relax' is cognitive, and behavioural is 'I will go to class each week' Example 2: "I am frightful of rollercoasters and believe they are stupid so I will be on the carousel." Affective -- 'I am frightful', behavioural is 'I will be on the carousel', and cognitive is 'I believe they are stupid' Attitudes Influence Behavior 4 theories that answer question: *how do our attitudes influence behavior.* 1. **Theory of planned behavior** o Intentions + Implications: We consider our **implications** of our actions before we decide on how to behave. The best predictor of our behavior is the strength of these **intensions** and implications. o Intensions are based on 3 things: § Our **attitudes** towards a certain behavior (ex. I like/favor studying), § **Subjective norms** - what we think others think about our behavior (ex. My friends think studying is a waste of time) § **Perceived behavioural control** (how easy/hard we think it is to control our behavior) ex. I also have to work 40 hours this week on top of studying. In this example: Our attitude is positive, but our behavior of studying is low! 2. **Attitude to behavior process model (Attitude** à **Behavior)** o An event triggers our attitude (something that will influence our perception of an object) o Then attitude + some outside knowledge (what regarded as appropriate behavior) together determines behavior. 143 o Ex. Tommy has attitude that junk food is unhealthy, because many of his relatives have heart related diseases associated with poor eating habits. So when he's at home he does not eat chips/soda/candy because of his knowledge that these foods are bad for his health and maintains a healthy lifestyle no matter where he is. § unhealthy attitude (trigged by an event) + knowledge leads to behavior 3. **Prototype Willingness Model (PWM)** o *Behavior is a function of 6 things, the combination of which influence our* *behavior. Our behavior is a function of....* § Past behavior § Attitudes -- explained in Attitude to behavior processing model above. Attitude à behavior § *Subjective norms* -- what others think about our behavior § Our *intentions* -- our behavior intentions § Our *willingness* to engage in a specific type of behavior § *models/prototyping* -- a lot of our behavior is carried out from prototyping/modelling. 4. **Elaboration Likelihood Model for Persuasion (ELM)** o More *cognitive approach* -- focuses on the *why/how of persuasion*. o 2 ways in which information is processed: § Central Route of Persuasion: The degree of attitude change depends on quality of the arguments by the persuader. How much we are persuaded depends on quality of persuasion. ARGUMENT/Words are central! § Peripheral Route of Persuasion: looks at superficial/expertise/non-verbal persuasion cues, such as attractiveness/status of persuader. The doctor himself is peripheral (he is the one delivering the words!) Ex; if a drug rep comes to your medical practice and tries to convince their version of a drug. Subconsciously we will be looking at quality of arguments, if they can market drug better than another company/representative and how well they present patient risks. How engaging they are, their experience with the industry. Their knowledge of the company, how well they look. We process all these cognitively and shape our attitude towards our company and ultimately our behavior. People strive for consistency between their attitudes and behaviors. You wouldn't hold attitude and then display a behavior that conflicts the attitude ex. You wouldn't say eating meat is immoral and then have a positive attitude towards eating hamburgers. People are more likely to be honest when social influences are reduced (ex. secret ballot), when general patterns of behavior are observed versus a single one (**principle of** **aggregation**), when specific actions are considered, and when attitudes are made more powerful through self-reflection.