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Lesson 1: Introduction to Scientific Research​ ​ 1.1. Experimental Science​ -Scientific research is an objective, logical, and repeatable attempt to understand the principle forces operating the natural universe.​ -Capstone research project is designed for senior high school students to conduct expe...

Lesson 1: Introduction to Scientific Research​ ​ 1.1. Experimental Science​ -Scientific research is an objective, logical, and repeatable attempt to understand the principle forces operating the natural universe.​ -Capstone research project is designed for senior high school students to conduct experiments that will draw their experiences together to answer a research question or a problem.​ ​ 1.2. Discovery-based Investigation​ -It is also called a non-inquiry investigation for it relies on verifiable observations and measurements.​ -It involves methods to observe a structure or a phenomenon; to record, analyze, and interpret the data obtained; and to generate detailed descriptions. ​ ​ Examples:​ >Description of Human DNA ​ >Composition of a Plant Extract ​ >Correlation of Typhoon Intensities and Amount of Rainfall ​ >Measurement and Comparison of Ultraviolet Rays throughout the Months​ ​ Demonstration​ -It explains a scientific principle of why or how something works through models illustrations or visual animations. This does not require hypothesis testing. However, you must carry out testing or trials to demonstrate that a given scientific principle actually works.​ Ex.​ >Solar energy as an alternative source of energy for watering plants ​ ​ Demonstration Step-by-Step Process:​ Project-Research-Materials-Procedure-Conclusion​ ​ Collection​ -It is a group of naturally occurring specimens gathered to show their scientific hierarchy or relationship. it must demonstrate newly discovered information that would contribute to an existing scientific knowledge.​ Ex.​ >Collection and identification of tadpoles in Dasmariñas Cavite​ ​ Collection Step-by-Step Process:​ Project-Research-Materials-Procedure-Conclusion​ ​ Procedure Demonstration Collection Project What scientific question are you Which scientific question will trying to demonstrate? your collection illustrate? Research Learn about what has been Learn about an existing done in the past. State how collection in the past that may your work will be different. relate to your research. Materials What materials will you need to What materials do you need to demonstrate the principle? obtain the specimens for your collection? Procedure Write a step by step procedure How will you collect, organize, of what you plan to do and why and label your specimens? it is important. Conclusion What do you hope to teach What do you hope to learn and others with your demonstration teach others with your or model? collection? 1.3. Hypothesis-based Investigation -When you conduct an experiment you start to perform an inquiry-based investigation. It requires one to propose and test a hypothesis; hence, it is also called a hypothesis-based investigation.​ -It involves the use of the scientific method anchored on a well defined procedure designed to answer a researchable question.​ -In an inquiry based investigation students conduct science investigatory projects. It aims to establish scientific detailed information or characteristics about a given group. -To do this certain characteristics need to be determined, defined, and compared to another population by making observations or measurements on variables. -A variable is a test subject’s characteristic that can change (or is allowed to change).​ -Scientific investigatory projects may also aim to apply a treatment on a test subject in a controlled way to collect data in response to the experimental conditions. -To have a valid conclusion, it is important to make comparisons among the test subjects, which have either received a treatment but in different degrees/levels (experimental group), or did not receive the treatment at all (control group).​ ​ Step-by-Step Process:​ Problem-Hypothesis-Procedure-Results-Conclusion ​ ​ Title Objective Experimental Control Variable Population/Group Treatment A comparative To compare the Degrees of Laguna de Bay, Use of bacterial assessment of the degrees of pollution Pasig River, bioluminescence degrees of pollution in Manila Bay, and assay population in Laguna de Bay, Marikina River Laguna de Bay, Pasig River, Pasig River, Manila Bay, and Manila Bay, and Marikina River Marikina River using bacterial bioluminescence assay Development of Develop an Antibodies Blo t 5 allergen in Immunoassay an immunoassay immunoassay For produced from the house does development for the the detection and various profits my blomia environmental monitoring of Blo t different dust tropicalis detection and 5 allergen samples monitoring of Collected from blood t5 allergen various sources in the house dust mite blomia tropicalis ​ title objective experimental control variable Population/group treatment The effect of To determine the Tomato seedlings Tomato seedlings Tomato seedlings extended sunlight effect of extended exposed to not exposed to exposure on the sunlight exposure various periods of sunlight growth patterns of on the growth sunlight exposure tomato seedlings patterns of tomato seedlings Acaricidal To determine the Suidasia pontifica Suidasia pontifica Suidasia pontifica activities of acaricidal (house dust mite) (house dust mite) (house dust mite) essential oils from activities of exposed two exposed to water Citrus aurantium essential oils from essential oils from or alcohol (dalandan), Citrus aurantium Citrus aurantium Canaga odorata (dalandan), (dalandan),  (ylang-ylang), and Canaga odorata Canaga odorata Pinus insularis (ylang-ylang), and (ylang-ylang), and (philippine pine Pinus insularis Pinus insularis tree) on Suidasia (philippine pine (philippine pine pontifica (house tree) tree) dust mite) 1.4. Basic and Applied Research Basic Research Theoretical | For the expansion of knowledge >Genetic diversity >Ecological patterns >Biodiversity studies >Host-parasite interactions >Characterization of organisms Applied Research Practical | For the betterment of life’s quality >Alternative energy resources >Low-cost instrumentation >Development of diagnostic kits >Identification of antibacterials >Biomaterials characterization 1.5. Qualities of an Empirical Research Project ​ 1. It should contribute to an existing knowledge in science. 2. It has to exhibit originality 3. It should follow the process of a research. 4. It must look into available scientific sources of information 5. Its design must be logical and rational. 6. Its results and conclusions must be verifiable and repeated by others. 7, It should address a real-world problem or issue. Lesson 2: The Research Process and Design The research process and the research topic - the conduct of an experimental study employs the scientific method, which involves systematic procedures in order to come up with scientifically acceptable and verifiable results and conclusions. -There are also instances when the procedure needs to be modified as a result of unexpected data or problems in the conduct of the experiment. Hence, there is a need to return to a previous step. -Research is an iterative process because the results generated may lead to more questions that need further research.​ ​ 1. Choosing a research topic.​ 2. Gathering information about the research topic. 3. Preparing a review of related literature. 4. Writing the research proposal formulating the hypothesis and the research design. 5. Conducting the experiment. 6. Collecting and analyzing data. 7. Writing the research report. 8. Disseminating the research study. ​ ​ - Selecting a research topic is a critical initial step in conducting a project. The challenge is to come up with a topic that is novel, feasible, and applicable. -Broad enough to have an impact on society and the scientific community. -But if it is too broad you will find too many articles that have little significance to your topic. -Narrow enough to make the research project doable and answer a specific problem. -But if it is too narrow only a few articles or studies are available to serve as your reference. ​ Environmental Science Broad Categories Specific Fields Electrical Engineering deals with the practical Communication; Computer Engineering; application of the theory of electricity Electronic; Power construction of machinery, power supplies, etc. Mechanical Engineering is concerned primarily Engineering Mechanics; Mechanical Engineering within industrial application of mechanics and with the design, production, and use of tools, machinery, and their products. Life Science Broad Categories Specific Fields Environmental biology focuses on the scientific Ecosystem Sciences; Evolutionary Biology; study of the origins, functions, relationships, Global Warming; Population and Biotic interactions, and natural history of living Community Ecology; Systematics populations, communities, species, and ecosystems in relation to dynamic and environmental processes. Medical biology is concerned with the study of Family Medicine; Neurology; Mental Health; the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Optometry Pediatrics; Preventive Medicine diseases, particularly of humans. Mathematics and Computer Science Broad Categories Specific Fields Mathematics is an abstract science of number, Algebra; Applied Mathematics; Logic; Geometry; quantities, operations, and space to Numerical Analysis; Statistics; Trend Reporting systematically produce generalization, combinations, and abstractions. Computer science deals with the theories and Computer and Information Sciences; Design, methods of processing information in digital Development, and Application of Computer computers as well as the design of both Capabilities to Data and Storage Manipulation; computer hardware and software. Programming Languages ​ Physical Science Broad Categories Specific Fields Chemistry is the science that deals with the Inorganic Chemistry; Organic Chemistry; composition, structure, and properties of Organo-Metallic Chemistry; Pharmaceutical substances as well as the changes that they Chemistry; Physical Chemistry undergo. Physics is concerned with the nature and Atomic and Molecular Physics; Chemical properties of matter, energy, motion, and force. Physics; Condensed Matter; Elementary Particles; Theoretical/Mathematics Physics After reviewing the categories, limit your topic using subcategories. Main category Energy and emerging technology First Level Renewable energy  Second Level Natural extracts as alternative sources of energy Proposed Title the feasibility of producing ethanol from bitter orange (Citrus aurantium) peelings After choosing a topic, questions to be answered in inquiry may then be crafted. Ideal questions for doing a project starts with why, how, what, who, when, where, or which. Water Pollution: 1. What aquatic plants, animals, and microorganisms can be used as indicators to measure the level of water pollution? 2. How can water pollutants affect the growth and reproduction of specific plants and animals? Alternative Energy:​ 1.What local non agricultural plants can be sources of essential oils? 2. How can one maximize the utilization of solar energy and wind energy as resources of electricity? ​ ​ -The purpose of Qualitative Research is to explore, understand, and interpret human behavior and issues. -The aims of Quantitative Research are to test hypotheses, determine cause and effect relationships, and make predictions.​ ​ QUANTITATIVE Philosophical Foundation Deductive; Reductionist Aim Test predetermined hypothesis Methodology Predetermined; Step-by-step; Confirmatory, or Top-down Variables Distinct set of variables Position of Researchers Detached; Highly objective Assessing Quality of Outcomes Validity and reliability tested directly through statistics Utility of Results Generalizability The research design is the overall plan or conceptual structure formulated to address the research problem. If the research design is not properly formulated, the overall research problem might be inadequately addressed.​ -The nature of research; -The objective of the research design; -Flexibility of the research design to undergo changes; -Skills of the researchers -Effectivity and efficiency of the research design in obtaining the needed data; -Accuracy and reliability of the data and devices it should avoid; -and the time frame cost and feasibility of the study. Research Designs Descriptive It describes, explains, and validates various aspects of the subject. The data are obtained through a systematic observation of the sample. However, because the samples are merely observed, the variables are not controlled and the conclusion cannot describe any relationship among the variables. Correlational It establishes the extent of the relationship among variables. it recognizes the trends and  patterns in the data, and the variables, are in the subject itself. However, it proves only the relationship, not the cause. Causal-comparative It attempts to establish cause and effect relationships among variables. This can determine the influence of a certain variable on other variables or even on the entire subject. However, because of the nature of this research design, the samples are usually predetermined and not randomly selected. Experimental It involves a setup where the researcher maintains absolute control over all the factors that may affect the experiment. Hence, the variables are systematicallyManipulated to observe their effects. The Research Ethics and Safety -Research ethics is based on moral principles that govern a researcher's behavior in conducting experiments. It is based on a number of foundations including rules and regulations, rules of conduct, ethical principles, moral principles, products of research, and values. -The rules and regulations of the school or organization must serve as the basic foundation of ethics in research and must be followed all the time. Ethical Practices and Morals: - Proper citation for all references used; - Statement of conflict of interest; -Inclusion of others who contributed to the research. Moral Principles - Non-maleficence (Avoiding harming others) - Beneficence (Doing good for others) - Autonomy (Self-determination) - Justice (Being fair) - Fidelity (Keeping promises) - Veracity (Truthfulness and Consistent honest) Ethical Principles 1. Honesty and Integrity 2. Objectively 3.Accuracy and Cautiousness 4. Protection of Human Subjects 5.Animal Care 6. Care for the Environment 7. Respect for Intellectual Property 8.Responsible Research Dissemination​ ​ Responsibilities of a Researcher​ -Research students are primarily responsible for the design, conduct, finalization, and dissemination of the study. Researchers expected to observe the highest ethical standard and follow the guidelines and procedures set by the school in conducting a CRP. 1. Develop an appropriate CRP plan following the format of the school. 2.Consult and discuss your concerns with your research adviser regularly. 3. Attend required research orientation sessions, accomplish research forms, and comply with other research protocols prior to the conduct of experimentation. 4. Accomplish preparatory activities ahead of schedule. 5. Manage and sustain the progress of the research. 6.Prepare the final product and paper following the format of the school. 7.Disseminate your CRP results In the guidance of the school. The safety of the researchers, the end products of the research, and the environment where the research is conducted should be considered. safety must be prioritized because of the inherent risks such as fire hazards, toxic chemicals, risk, and infectious diseases from creatures. 1.Following the instruction to avoid accidents and endangering your life and others. 2.Familiarize yourself with the location and use of safety equipment. 3. Wear personal protective equipment. 4. Strictly no food nor drinks. 5. Dispose the wastes. 6.Study the protocols for accidents. 7. Experiments in a safe place. 8. Caring for the environment must be a priority in conducting research. Role of Research in the Society -Scientists and researchers have the responsibility to transmit knowledge for the improvement of society. research at problems community. researchers must also engage in intellectual dialogues with members of the society in order to understand their immediate needs and aspirations. Fraud in Science -Scientific research is the search for truth. with the tools of science, new knowledge is generated and new discoveries and inventions help societal problems. scientific achievements of researchers bring honor, recognition, empowerment, and even financial rewards. These are powerfulMotivation for aware research to commit scientific misconduct or fraud in science. The practice in science to recognize the first researcher to report a scientific breakthrough may also add pressure for someone to falsify results. Scientific Misconduct - scientific misconduct is committed when someone reports unreliable and fraudulent reports. The following are the common forms of scientific fraud: 1.Fabrication - making up results and reporting them as one's own data. 2. Falsification - manipulating by changing, omitting, or adding data. 3. Plagiarism - owning someone else's work without giving proper credits. - Citation Plagiarism: failure to cite the work of previous researchers who had published the same result. - Plagiarism Fabrication: copying an unrelated figure from a unrelated publication and reproducing it exactly in a new publication. - Self-Plagiarism: publishing the same results using different titles in different journals. 4.Photo Manipulation - image fraud by publishing photoshopped images. 5. Ghostwriting - employment of ghostwriters to write publication. 6. Authorship Misconduct - authors without substantial contribution in the development and research studies and publication. 7. Bare assertion - making an unsubstantiated claim. Lesson 3: The Scientific Literature SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE AND ITS TYPES Conceptualizing a research topic is one of the most challenging aspects of research. It requires obtaining existing or background information about the topic of interest. The following are the reasons why gaining background information about your research topic is important. 1.​ It expands your knowledge as a researcher. Reading background information helps you understand your research topic as well as its context. 2.​ It gives a summary of critical studies. Background information can be synthesized so that studies relevant to your research topic are included.  3.​ It helps refine your research topic. Gathering background information reveals issues that have not been resolved yet. PRIMARY LITERATURE Primary literature refers to original research and new studies that contain firsthand information about a certain topic. Also known as a primary source, it is used as a basis of other types of literature since it is the most recent among them. Primary literature is evaluated by scientists and researchers of the same area of expertise as that of the author to ensure its accuracy and authenticity. This process of evaluation is called peer review. ​ Examples: >Journal articles >Monographs >Autobiographies >Photographs​ > Speeches SECONDARY LITERATURE Secondary literature refers to publications that largely rely on primary literature. Its main purpose is to discuss, evaluate, synthesize, and summarize information from different primary sources. This is the reason why secondary literature usually provides broader and more in-depth information about a given topic. Nevertheless, it also undergoes peer review before publication. ​ Examples​ >Literature Review Articles​ >Meta-analysis​ >Indices​ >Data compilations TERTIARY LITERATURE Tertiary literature is based on both primary and secondary literature. It represents a condensed summary or an introduction to the current knowledge or research on the topic. This kind of literature holds information that, while authentic, is farthest from the source. It is also not as focused and detailed as the previous types.​ Examples​ >Science magazines​ >Textbooks ​ >Encyclopedia​ >Dictionaries​ TRADITIONAL WAYS OF GATHERING INFORMATION Traditionally, researchers gather information by reading various sources or resources to make sure that their information is correct and accurate. ​ GENERAL REFERENCES General references are the broadest reading materials; they cover every knowledge available. They can be used to gain initial knowledge and general ideas about a certain topic. However, general references cannot give an in-depth discussion about a research topic. ​ Examples​ >Almanacs​ >Atlases​ >Dictionaries​ >Encyclopedias ​ SCHOLARLY BOOKS​ Scholarly books are written for general or specialized fields of science (e.g., chemistry, engineering. etc.). They contain information derived from original research. Scholarly books are more detailed than general references. They contain key concepts, terminologies, and data that can be easily understood. ​ MONOGRAPHS Monographs are highly specialized books or treaties that contain detailed and thoroughly documented studies and papers, which focus on a single topic in a particular field. Monographs contain comprehensive information that can serve as background knowledge for your research. ​ REVIEW ARTICLE Review articles, or reviews, are written documents that sum up the current state of the research on a particular topic. Review articles provide a basic understanding about a specific research area and are, at the same time, relatively easy to understand. They are more detailed, current, and commonly published in peer-reviewed journals. ​ SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS Scientific journals are the main source of primary information related to past and current scientific investigations. They are usually specialized for different fields or disciplines of science. ​ ONLINE RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION SEARCH ENGINES Examples​ >Google >Bing >Yahoo >Baidu >Ask >AOL​ >Boolean Operator​ BOOLEAN OPERATOR Boolean logic or searching is a method of organizing one's search using a combination of keywords. There are three main Boolean operators, namely, and, or, and not. These are used to limit your search engines to only the results that you need. AND OR NOT Using AND, This search would Using OR, this search would Using NOT, this search will only retrieve results with peanut retrieve peanut butter, with jelly, retrieve results with peanut butter and jelly and with both. butter and exclude those with jelly or peanut butter with jelly ​ RESEARCH DATABASE ​ A database is a large and comprehensive collection of data conveniently organized for rapid search and retrieval through a computer. Companies and schools use databases to store the information of their workers and students, respectively. In research, publishers use databases to store journal articles that they have published and, at the same time, grant researchers access to them. ​ Common Scientific Literature Databases ​ PREPARING A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ​ NOTE-TAKING The are three main principles of note-taking in research: 1.​ Know what to record - Before finding and reading your literature, you must know what ideas or topics you are trying to find by creating a list of topics and subtopics. 2.​ Write efficiently - Do not write down too much unnecessary information. 3.​ Label it logically - When creating a label, always label the Topic, Title of the Study, Author's, Year of Publication, Journal, and Page Number. ​ CONCEPT MATRIX There are two approaches in structuring the RRL: 1.​ Concept-centric - concepts are described one after another. 2.​ Author-centric - discusses the related studies performed by researchers