Hhu. Biological Information/Genes & Inheritance 2024 PDF

Modul Network of Life Lecture 2 Today: Biological Information – Genes and Inheritance  Review lecture 1 Top 10 1. Principle of mass conservation: Matter is neither created nor destroyed! 2. Fou...

Modul Network of Life Lecture 2 Today: Biological Information – Genes and Inheritance  Review lecture 1 Top 10 1. Principle of mass conservation: Matter is neither created nor destroyed! 2. Four Laws of thermodynamics 3. Matter consists of chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds. 4. Four elements - oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N) - make up approximately 96% of living matter 5. Chemical reactions rearrange matter by making and breaking chemical bounds 6. Four emergent properties of water contribute to Earth’s suitability for life. Cohesive behaviour Ability to moderate temperature Expansion upon freezing Versatility as a solvent. 7. Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms. 8. Biological diversity results from carbon’s ability to form a huge number of molecules with particular shapes and properties (~200.000 without C but ~20 Million molecules with C). 9. Functional groups attached to the carbon skeletons contribute to function by affecting molecular shape. 10. ATP can react with water or other molecules, forming ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and inorganic phosphate. This reaction releases energy that can be used by the cell. 2 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  SUMMARY OF KEY CONCEPTS Macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers Carbohydrates serve as fuel and building material. Proteins include a diversity of  Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose structures, resulting in a wide range of  Disaccharides: lactose, sucrose functions. ▪ Enzymes  Polysaccharides: ▪ Defensive proteins  Cellulose (plants) ▪ Storage proteins ▪ Transport proteins  Starch (plants) ▪ Hormones  Glycogen (animals) ▪ Receptor proteins  Chitin (animals and fungi) ▪ Motor proteins ▪ Structural proteins Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic express hereditary information molecules. ▪ DNA: Triacylglycerols (fats or oils) ▪Sugar = deoxyribose ▪Nitrogenous bases = C, G, A, T ▪ glycerol + three fatty acids ▪Usually double-stranded Phospholipids: ▪ RNA: ▪ glycerol +phosphate group + two fatty acids ▪ Sugar = ribose ▪ Nitrogenous bases = C, G, A, U Steroids: ▪ Usually single-stranded ▪ four fused rings with attached chemical groups 3 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The basic unit of structure and function What happens if we put all building blocks of life ordered, packed and synchronized on small space and let them converting energy by rearranging matter using chemical reactions? Organelles nucleus - DNA mitochondria - ATP golgi apparatus - vesicle chloroplast – energy converter 4 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The basic unit of structure and function What if we synchronized the organelles let them interact with each other in order to convert energy by rearranging matter using chemical reactions? ell C Many forms of life exist as single-celled organisms, such as the Paramecium shown here. 5 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell The cell is an organism’s basic unit of structure and function! Cell membrane =Controls what goes in and out of the cell Cell wall = protects the cell Nucleus = Contains genetic infromation/ dna Ribosomes= site of protien synthesis RET AND SET= synthesizes and modifies Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates Chloroplast = converts light energy to chemical Mitochondria = ATP synthesis 6 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell The size range of cells. Most cells are between 1 and 100 μm in diameter (yellow region of chart), and their components are even smaller, as are viruses. log scale Starting at the top of the scale with 10 m and going down, each reference measurement marks a tenfold decrease in diameter or length. Plant and animal cells nucleus , mitochondria , most bacteria smallest bacteria viruses , ribosomes protien and lips small molecules atom 7 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell Two main distinct types of cells exists that are the basic structural and functional units of every life. common ancestor plants fungi archaea bacteria insects animal prokaryotes eukaryotes 8 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell A prokaryotic cell 9 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell Eukaryotic cell 10 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell All cells share certain basic features: eukaryotic cell prokaryotic cell They are all bounded by a selective barrier, called the plasma membrane (or the cell membrane). Inside all cells is a semifluid, jellylike substance called cytosol, in which subcellular components are suspended. All cells contain chromosomes, which carry genes in the form of DNA. All cells have ribosomes, tiny complexes that make proteins according to instructions from the genes. ❖A major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the location of their DNA. ❖In a eukaryotic cell, most of the DNA is in an organelle called the nucleus, which is bounded by a double membrane. ❖In a prokaryotic cell, the DNA is concentrated in a region that is not membrane-enclosed, called the nucleoid. ❖Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions. 11 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell The plasma membrane The plasma membrane and the membranes of organelles consist of a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids with various proteins attached to or embedded in it. The hydrophobic parts of phospholipids and membrane proteins are found in the interior of the membrane, while the hydrophilic parts are in contact with aqueous solutions on either side. Carbohydrate side chains may be attached to proteins or lipids on the outer surface of the plasma membrane. Structure of the plasma membrane 12 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell The Fluidity of Membranes Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins. Membranes are not static sheets of molecules locked rigidly in place. A membrane is held together mainly by hydrophobic interactions, which are much weaker than covalent bonds. A membrane remains fluid as temperature decreases until the phospholipids settle into a closely packed arrangement and the membrane solidifies. The temperature at which a membrane solidifies depends on the types of lipids it is made of. As the temperature decreases, the membrane remains fluid to a lower temperature if it is rich in phospholipids with unsaturated hydrocarbon tails. The steroid cholesterol, which is wedged between phospholipid molecules in the plasma membranes of animal cells, has different effects on membrane fluidity at different temperatures. 13 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  The Cell Membrane structure and function Membranes must be fluid to work properly; the fluidity of a membrane affects both its permeability and the ability of membrane proteins to move to where their function is needed. Usually, membranes are about as fluid as olive oil. When a membrane solidifies, its permeability changes, and enzymatic proteins in the membrane may become inactive. 14 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Summary Cell & Plasma Membrane ▪ Organelles are basic units of structure and specific function. ▪ Cells are units of combined and synchronized organelles. ▪ Two main types of cells exists: prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. ▪ Main difference is the compartmentalization in eukaryotic cells by different membranes. ▪ Eukaryotes have a nucleus membrane enclosed DNA storage, prokaryotes have a nucleoid (DNA is not in surrounded by a membrane). ▪ The plasma membrane and the membranes of organelles consist of a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids with various protein s attached to or embedded in it. ▪ Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins. ▪ The fluidity of a membrane affects both its permeability and the ability of membrane proteins to move. ▪ The membrane proteins are responsible for a wide range of functions like i.e. transport, signal transduction or cell -cell recognition. 15 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism How do the laws of thermodynamics relate to biological processes? 16 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism How do the laws of thermodynamics relate to biological processes? 17 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism What is the cell metabolism? 18 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism What is the cell metabolism? An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy. The totality of an organism’s chemical reactions is called metabolism (from the Greek metabole, change). Metabolism is an emergent property of life that arises from orderly interactions between molecules. 19 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism Metabolic Pathways A cell’s metabolism as an elaborate road map of many chemical reactions, arranged as intersecting metabolic pathways. In a metabolic pathway, a specific molecule is altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product. Each step is catalysed by a specific enzyme, a macromolecule that speeds up a chemical reaction. 20 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism Highly simplified map of metabolic pathways from the E. Coli bacterium 21 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism Metabolism as a whole manages the material and energy resources of the cell. Some metabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds. These degradative processes are called catabolic pathways, or breakdown pathways. One major catabolic pathway is cellular respiration, which breaks down glucose and other organic fuels in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide and water. Anabolic pathways, in contrast, consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones; they are sometimes called biosynthetic pathways. Examples of anabolism are synthesis of an amino acid from simpler molecules and synthesis of a protein from amino acids. Energy released from catabolic pathways can be stored and then used to drive anabolic pathways! 22 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism Forms of Energy Energy is the capacity to cause change. Energy is the ability to rearrange a collection of matter. Energy exists in various forms, and the work of life depends on the ability of cells to transform energy from one form to another. Kinetic energy: the relative motion of objects; moving objects can perform work by imparting motion to other matter (the contraction of leg muscles pushes bicycle pedals). Thermal energy: is kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules; thermal energy in transfer from one object to another is called heat. Potential energy: Energy that is not kinetic; it is energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure. Chemical energy is a term used by biologists to refer to the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction. Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules. Biologists say that these complex molecules, such as glucose, are high in chemical energy. During a catabolic reaction, some bonds are broken and others are formed, releasing energy and resulting in lower-energy breakdown products. 23 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Cell Metabolism Review An organism’s metabolism transforms matter and energy. Metabolism as a whole manages the material and energy resources of the cell. In a metabolic pathway, a specific molecule is altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a certain product. Degradative processes are called catabolic pathways, or breakdown pathways. Building complicated molecules from simpler ones are called anabolic pathways (sometimes called biosynthetic pathways). Energy is the ability to rearrange a collection of matter and energy exists in various forms. Kinetic energy: the relative motion of objects Thermal energy: random movements of atoms Potential energy: energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure 24 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information What is life? Yet the phenomenon we call life defies a simple definition. We recognize life by what living things do. For example: moving, growing, excreting something, eating, producing heat etc… 25 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information What is life? On molecular level we can summarized it as: A self controlled system that is able to independently rearrange matter and energy approaching a highly ordered state with the ability of reproduction. 26 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information What is life? “The self controlled system that is able to independently rearrange matter and energy” are all organized building blocks of life surrounded by different membranes enabling the rearrangement of matter and energy in a process called metabolism, but: What’s about “the ability of reproduction”? What is reproduction? What is important or needed for reproduction? Why do we need reproduction? 27 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Lets start with: Why do we need reproduction? Why should a system reproduce it’s self? Although, this is more a philosophical question, scientists always try to uncover fundamental principles or driving forces for the observations they make in their studies. The question ”why reproduction is needed?” is the same like ”why do life exists?”, since reproduction is a component of life definition itself. Of course there is no answer for this question from the biological point of view. We can only try to understand the scientific context of all processes taking place in nature in order to increase our knowledge about life. 28 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information What is reproduction? Let’s assume, reproduction is needed in order to prevent loosing the ability approaching a highly ordered state (minimal entropy). We would than define reproduction as preservation of developed abilities or achievements in time. 29 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information What is important or needed for reproduction? First at all we should think about what would be most efficient way to preserve and optimize the developed abilities in time. Once we acquired a specific ability that allow us i.e. to convert matter more efficiently and we want to conserve it in time, we preserve the information how to reacquire the same skill. For reproduction we need to store the information we want to keep in a place that is always accessible when needed. 30 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information What is information? Definition: Information are signals or codes which are decoded by a receiver. Without the decoding process of the corresponding signal or code, the information is not existing. How can we measure/quantify information? There are several methods to quantify the information content. One is called the Shannon Entropy. 31 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Shannon Entropy (H) – information content For a character string Z = {z1, z2, z3... zn } the entropy is: pi = probability for the occurrence of basis of the log defines the sign z numeric space. If the Z is binary (0/1) basis = 2. Less information Maximal information 0 Entropy scale 1 32 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Example DNA string (8nt) : AATTCCGG DNA string (8nt) : AAAACAAC pi: pi: A = 2/8 = ¼ =0.25 A = 6/8 = 0.75 T = 2/8 = ¼ =0.25 T = 0/8 = 0 C = 2/8 = ¼ =0.25 C = 2/8 = 0.25 G = 2/8 = ¼ =0.25 G = 0/8 = 0 H = - ( 0.25*log4(0.25)) + ( 0.75*log4(0.75)) H = - ( 0.25*log4(0.25) *4 ) H = 0.41 H=1 low information high information 33 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Towards discovering the code with the information of life … 34 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information ERWIN Schrödinger (1887–1961) was a physicist who won the Nobel prize in 1933 for his pioneering work on wave mechanics. Yet, to biologists his name is permanently connected with a little book, entitled ”What Is Life?”, that was greatly influential in inspiring a number of pioneers of molecular biology. In What Is Life?, Schrödinger focused attention on two topics in biology: (a) the nature of the hereditary material and (b) the thermodynamics of living systems. He considered the role of the nucleus, especially the role of chromosomes in heredity… ‘the chromosome, that contain in some kind of code-script the entire pattern of the individual's future development and of its functioning in the mature state’. Krishna R. Dronamraju, Erwin Schrödinger and the Origins of Molecular Biology, GENETICS November 1, 1999 vol. 153 no. 3 1071-1076 35 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Among other biologists who were influenced by What Is Life? were James Watson (1968) and Francis Crick (1988). Watson (1968) wrote, “This book very elegantly propounded the belief that genes were the key components of living cells and that, to understand what life is, we must know how genes act”. Crick (1988) wrote that Schrödinger made it seem as if great things were just around the corner. ‘We believe that D.N.A. is a code. (...) We think that we have found the basic copying mechanism, creating life from life. (...) You can understand that we are very excited.’ 36 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance How to store information in biological systems? 37 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance How to store information in biological systems? Information are signals or codes which are decoded by a receiver CODE The molecular structure of DNA accounts for its ability to store information. A DNA molecule is made up of two long chains, called strands, arranged in a double helix. Each chain is made up of four kinds of chemical building blocks called nucleotides, abbreviated A, T, C, and G. Specific sequences of these four nucleotides encode the information in genes. The way DNA encodes information is analogous to how we arrange the letters of the alphabet into words and phrases with specific meanings. The word rat, for example, evokes a rodent; the words tar and art, which contain the same letters, mean very different things. We can think of nucleotides as a four-letter alphabet. 38 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance What are genes? 39 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance What are genes? A gene (from genos (Greek) meaning generation or birth or gender), transmitted from parents to offspring, is a basic unit of heredity and a sequence of nucleotides. gene gene gene 40 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance What are genes? A gene (from genos (Greek) meaning generation or birth or gender), transmitted from parents to offspring, is a basic unit of heredity and a sequence of nucleotides. Each chromosome contains one very long DNA molecule with hundreds or thousands of genes, each a section of the DNA of the chromosome. 41 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance What are genes? A gene (from genos (Greek) meaning generation or birth or gender), transmitted from parents to offspring, is a basic unit of heredity and a sequence of nucleotides. Each chromosome contains one very long DNA molecule with hundreds or thousands of genes, each a section of the DNA of the chromosome. They encode the information necessary to build all of the molecules synthesized within a cell, which in turn establish that cell’s identity and function. The entire “library” of genetic instructions that an organism inherits is called its genome. A typical human cell has two similar sets of chromosomes, and each set has approximately 3 billion nucleotide pairs of DNA. 42 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Gene Expression Protein-encoding genes control protein production indirectly, using a related molecule called RNA as an intermediary. The sequence of nucleotides along a gene is transcribed into mRNA, which is then translated into a linked series of protein building blocks called amino acids. Once completed, the amino acid chain forms a specific protein with a unique shape and function. The entire process by which the information in a gene directs the manufacture of a cellular product is called gene expression. 43 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Universality of the genetic code All forms of life employ essentially the same genetic code: A particular sequence of nucleotides means the same thing in one organism as it does in another. Differences between organisms reflect differences between their nucleotide sequences rather than between their genetic codes. This universality of the genetic code is a strong piece of evidence that all life is related. 44 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Reproduction by cell division Most cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells. The ability of organisms to produce more of their own kind is the one characteristic that best distinguishes living things from non-living matter. This unique capacity to procreate, like all biological functions, has a cellular basis. Cell division plays several important roles in life. When a prokaryotic cell divides, it is actually reproducing because the process gives rise to a new organism (another cell). As for multicellular eukaryotes, cell division enables each of these organisms to develop from a single cell - the fertilized egg. 45 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance The reproduction of a cell, with all of its complexity, cannot occur by a mere pinching in half; a cell is not like a soap bubble that simply enlarges and splits in two. In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, a crucial function of most cell divisions is the distribution of identical genetic material – DNA - to two daughter cells. What is most remarkable about cell division is the accuracy with which the DNA is passed from one generation of cells to the next. 46 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material The replication and distribution of so much DNA are manageable because the DNA molecules are packaged into structures called chromosomes. Each eukaryotic chromosome consists of one very long, linear DNA molecule associated with many proteins. The DNA molecule carries several hundred to a few thousand genes. The associated proteins maintain the structure of the chromosome and help control the activity of the genes. Together, the entire complex of DNA and proteins that is the building material of chromosomes is referred to as chromatin. 47 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance A Comparison of Mitosis and Meiosis Key differences between meiosis and mitosis in diploid cells. Meiosis produces four cells and reduces the number of chromosome sets from two (diploid) to one (haploid), whereas mitosis produces two cells and conserves the number of chromosome sets. Meiosis produces cells that differ genetically from the parent cell and from each other, whereas mitosis produces daughter cells that are genetically identical to their parent cell and to each other. 48 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Inheritance or Heredity Offspring acquire genes from parents by inheriting chromosomes. The transmission of traits from one generation to the next is called inheritance, or heredity (from the Latin heres, heir). At the same time, sons and daughters are not identical copies of either parent or of their siblings. Along with inherited similarity, there is also variation. The study of both heredity and inherited variation is called genetics. 49 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Reproduction types In asexual reproduction, a single parent produces genetically identical offspring by cell division. The genomes of the offspring are virtually exact copies of the parent’s genome. Because the cells of the offspring arise via mitosis in the parent, the offspring is usually genetically identical to its parent. An individual that reproduces asexually gives rise to a clone, an individual or group of individuals that are genetically identical to the parent. Sexual reproduction - In sexual reproduction, two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the two parents. In contrast to a clone, offspring of sexual reproduction vary genetically from their siblings and both parents: They are variations on a common theme of family resemblance, not exact replicas. Genetic variation is an important consequence of sexual reproduction. 50 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Genetic Variation – new biological information How do we account for the genetic variation? Mutations are the original source of genetic diversity. These changes in an organism’s DNA create the different versions of genes, known as alleles. Once these differences arise, reshuffling of the alleles during sexual reproduction produces the variation that results in each member of a sexually reproducing population having a unique combination of traits. Three mechanisms contribute to the genetic variation arising from sexual reproduction: independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over, and random fertilization. 51 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Independent assortment of chromosomes Chromosome positioning is randomly. Each daughter cell represents one outcome of all possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes. 52 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Crossing Over Crossing over produces chromosomes with new combinations of maternal and paternal alleles. At metaphase II, chromosomes that contain one or more recombinant chromatids can be oriented in two alternative, none equivalent ways with respect to other chromosomes because their sister chromatids are no longer identical. The different possible arrangements of nonidentical sister chromatids during meiosis II further increase the number of genetic types of daughter cells that can result from meiosis. 53 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance Random Fertilization The random nature of fertilization adds to the genetic variation arising from meiosis. In humans, each male and female gamete represents one of about 8.4 million (223) possible chromosome combinations due to independent assortment. The fusion of a male gamete with a female gamete during fertilization will produce a zygote with any of about 70 trillion (223 * 223) diploid combinations. If we factor in the variation brought about by crossing over, the number of possibilities is truly astronomical. You really are unique. 54 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de  Biological Information Genes and Inheritance summary Life: A self controlled system that is able to independently rearrange matter and energy approaching a highly ordered state with the ability of reproduction. Reproduction: preserving information by passing it through a code to the offspring. Information: a signal or code that are decoded by a receiver. DNA: Matter that stores biological information as nucleotides (code). Genes: Ordered nucleotides in a sequences which after “decoding” allow to build proteins. Genome: Whole collection of genes from an organism. Cell division: Creating new life by transfer of whole genomic information to offspring (inheritance) Variation: Creating new biological information 55 WS 2024/25 - Biological Information / Genes and Inheritance hhu.de