Biology Past Paper PDF

臟層⼼包 Which organ is covered by visceral pericardium? What is the normal pH range of blood? A. Kidney 腎 A. 6.85-6.95 B. Lung B. 7.35-7.45 C Heart...

臟層⼼包 Which organ is covered by visceral pericardium? What is the normal pH range of blood? A. Kidney 腎 A. 6.85-6.95 B. Lung B. 7.35-7.45 C Heart C. 7.65-7.75 D. Small intestine ⼩腸 D. 8.05-8.15 Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following statement regarding epithelial 穩態 homeostasis is false? tissues is true? 上⽪ 靜態平衡 A. It is in a static equilibrium A. They rest on a basement membrane B. Disturbance of homeostasis will lead to B. The cells of the squamous epithelium are diseases boxy-shaped 鱗狀上⽪ 神經內分祕 C. It involves nervous and endocrine control C. The cells of the cuboidal epithelium are tall and 立⽅ D. It usually involves receptors as sensors of thin internal environment changes D. They do not have secretory functions Which of the following organelles is essential for Which of the following is not regarded as a standard 細胞器 energy production? ⼀解部位置 anatomic position? A. Nucleus A. Standing erect 直立 B. Mitochondria 線粒體 B. Arms at sides C. Endoplasmic reticulum 內質網 C. Thumb inside ⼤拇指 D. Golgi apparatus D. Toes forward Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following statement regarding the heart 紅細胞 erythrocytes is false? is false? 纖 命 ⼼胞 A. Their life span is approximately 120 days A. It is covered with an outer fibrous pericardium B. They are involved in oxygen and carbon dioxide and an inner serous pericardium 漿液性⼼包 ~ transport B. It is packed with mitochondria 線粒體 C. They are destructed in the spleen 脾 C. Left ventricle connects to the pulmonary artery 肺動脈 ⼼室 ~ D. They are nucleated cells D. Bicuspid valve is located between the left atrium 有核 ⼆尖瓣 and left ventricle 左⼼室 左⼼房 Which of the following structures does not belong Which of the following structure belongs to the lower ⼀ ~ to the upper respiratory system? ⼀ respiratory system? A. Nasal cavity ⿐腔 A. Nasal cavity B. Paranasal sinuses ⿐旁實 B. Paranasal sinuses C. Pharynx 咽 C. Pharynx D. Trachea 氣 D. Trachea Which of the following statements regarding blood Which of the following statement regarding vessels is true? respiratory control is true? 靜脈 A. Veins have a larger lumen compared to that of ⼀ A. The contraction of respiratory muscles is arteries 動脈《 controlled by the cerebellum B. Only tunica media is present in capillaries B. The ventral respiratory group fine-tunes the C. Vasodilation is caused by the contraction of respiratory rhythm smooth muscles in arteries and veins C. It is not possible to control ventilation consciously D. Tunica interna is composed of muscle cells and D. The body can set a basic respiratory rhythm basement membrane Which of the following statements regarding water Which of the following molecule can reduce blood reabsorption in the kidney is true? pressure? 腎 遠曲 A. Reabsorption of water is mainly in the distal tubule ⼩管 B. It is stimulated by atrial natriuretic peptide A. Renin (ANP) B. Atrial natriuretic peptide ⼼房利鈉肽 C. Increase reabsorption of sodium ion will C. Angiotensin II facilitate water reabsorption D. Norepinephrine ~ D. Absence of the medullary osmotic gradient will render water reabsorption impossible Which of the following vitamins is involved in blood Regarding the stages of digestion, which of the clotting? 凝結 following is false? ⽑細⾎管 A. All nutrients are absorbed to the capillaries in the A. Vitamin A small ~ intestine ⼩腸 B. Vitamin B B. Enzymes are present in the digestive fluids for C. Vitamin E nutrients breakdown D. Vitamin K C. Stomach is involved in the mechanical digestion of food D. Faeces contain indigestible food materials Which of the following neurotransmitters is of Cranial nerve X is: 單胺型 monoamine type? 神經遞質 顱神經 A. Acetylcholine A. Optic B. Dopamine 多巴 B. Vagus 迷走神經 C. Glutamate C. Accessory D. Nitric oxide D. Hypoglossal 神經元 Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following statement regarding neurons is 神經元 neurons is true? 髓磷脂 true? 軸突 A. Most of the axons are covered by myelin A. Cell bodies do not have a nucleus B. Cell bodies do not have a nucleus B. Dendrites carry electrical signals away from the C. Dendrites carry electrical signals away from the cell body cell body C. Most of the axons are covered by myelin D. Loss of cell bodies function may lead to D. Clustering of cell bodies forms the white matter multiple sclerosis Which organ is covered by visceral pleura? Which of the following statements regarding cell ⼀層胸膜 membrane is false? ⼀ ~ A. Kidney A. It allows all substances to pass through by diffusion B. Lung 肺 B. There are receptors on its surface C. Heart C. It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer D. Small intestine D. It has protective roles to the cell Which of the following regarding membrane The most abundant leukocyte cell type is: transport is true? A. Diffusion process requires energy A. Lymphocyte B. Osmosis is the movement of water across a B. Neutrophil ⼀ permeable membrane C. Monocyte C. Active transport usually involves the transport D. Macrophage of protein molecules D. Facilitated diffusion requires the ⼀ presence of protein molecules ~ Which of the following organelle is essential for Which of the following processes increases blood energy production? pressure? 副交感 A. Nucleus A. Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system B. Mitochondria B. Increase atrial natriuretic peptide release from the C. Endoplasmic reticulum heart D. Golgi apparatus C. Reduce cardiac muscle contractility D. Increase renin release from the kidney Which of the following organ is not involved in Surfactant is released by: maintaining the balance of erythrocytes number 表⾯活性劑 in the body? 紅細胞 A. Bone marrow A. Type I pneumocytes B. Kidney B. Type II pneumocytes 肺細胞 C. Liver C. Type III pneumocytes D. Lungs D. Alveolar macrophages Regarding the regulation of blood pressure by Which of the following substances cannot be 腎素⾎緊張素固酮系統 renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which of reabsorbed in the renal tubules? 腎⼩管 the following organ is not directly involved? A. Liver A. Glucose B. Kidney B. Insulin 胰島素 C. Lungs C. Amino acid D. Heart D. Urea 草 膽汁 Which of the following regarding blood vessels is Which of the following statements regarding bile is true? false? A. Tunica interna composed of muscle cells and A. It can emulsify fats to become oil droplets basement membrane B. It is produced by the gall bladder 膽囊 B. In capillaries, only tunica media is present C. It contains bile salts and cholesterol C. Vasodilation is caused by the constriction of D. It is released to the duodenum smooth muscles in arteries and veins D. Veins have a larger lumen compared to that of arteries Which of the following structure will not contract Cranial nerve II is: 腦 during inspiration? 吸氣 A. Diaphragm A. Vagus B. Scalenes 斜⾓肌 B. Vestibulocochlear C. Sternocleidomastoid muscles 胸鎖乳突肌 C. Optic D. Internal intercostals 肋間內 D. Olfactory Which of the following regarding stomach is false? Which of the following statements regarding cardiac ⼼肌 muscle is true? A. Composed of inner circular and outer A. Its contraction and relaxation is under voluntary longitudinal layers control 壁胞 鹽酸 B. Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid for B. Its contraction and relaxation does not require activation of pepsinogen to pepsin 胃蛋⽩酶 energy C. Involves in the digestion of proteins C. It is not striated ⼀⼼ D. Secretion of intrinsic factor for the absorption D. It does not fatigue of vitamin B12 Which of the following neurotransmitter is of The neurotransmitter involved in skeletal muscle monoamine type? contraction is: ⾻骼肌 A. Acetylcholine A. Serotonin B. Dopamine B. Acetylcholine ⼰酰膽鹼 C. Glutamate C. Dopamine D. Nitric oxide D. Glutamate Which of the following regarding the brain is true? Which of the following is classified as an axial skeleton? ⾻ 軸向 A. The longitudinal fissure of the cerebrum A. Sternum 胸⾻ separates it from the cerebellum B. Humerus B. Limbic system involves in emotion and memory C. Fibula 邊綠系 C. The cerebellum is the master of hormonal D. Clavicle secretion D. Hypothalamus is located at the brainstem Which of the following statements regarding Which organ is covered by visceral pleura? pituitary gland is true? 、 重體 ⼀ A. It is composed of superior and inferior parts A. Kidney B. It is a site for mineralocorticoid secretion B. Lung C. Its secretions are under neuronal control C. Heart D. It is the master regulator of hormone secretion in D. Small intestine the body Which of the following is not a function of the Which of the following regarding membrane transport pancreas? is true? 胰腺 A. Diffusion process requires energy A. Produce insulin B. Osmosis is the movement of water across a B. Produce glucocorticoid 糖⽪激素 permeable membrane C. Produce glucagon C. Active transport usually involves the transport of D. Produce amylases protein molecules 擴散 D. Facilitated diffusion requires the presence of protein molecules Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following organelle is essential for ⇌ receptors is true? energy production? A. They are protein molecules that can be found A. Nucleus only on cell surface B. Mitochondria B. Their number on a cell is fixed C. Endoplasmic reticulum C. Their activation will not trigger gene expression D. Golgi apparatus D. They are drug targets 多發性硬化症⾃⾝抗體 Multiple sclerosis is caused by autoantibodies Which of the following organ is not involved in against: maintaining the balance of erythrocytes number in the body? A. Synovial membrane A. Bone marrow B. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor B. Kidney C. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor C. Liver D. Myelin sheath 髓鞘 D. Lungs Vaccination is a type of: Regarding the regulation of blood pressure by ⼩ renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which of the following organ is not directly involved? A. Natural active immunity A. Liver B. Natural passive immunity B. Kidney C. Artificial active immunity C. Lungs D. Artificial passive immunity D. Heart Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following regarding blood vessels is true? ⇌ 藥代動⼒學 pharmacokinetics is false? A. Drugs can be absorbed into the circulation A. Tunica interna composed of muscle cells and through the stomach mucosa basement membrane B. Albumin is a major drug carrier in blood B. In capillaries, only tunica media is present C. Liver enzymes are not involved in drug activation C. Vasodilation is caused by the constriction of 肝酶 D. Drugs can be eliminated in urine smooth muscles in arteries and veins D. Veins have a larger lumen compared to that of arteries  ⇌ Propranolol is a: Which of the following structure will not contract ⼀ during inspiration? A. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist A. Diaphragm B. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist B. Scalenes C. Alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonist C. Sternocleidomastoid muscles D. Beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist D. Internal intercostals 腎上腺素能受體指抗劑 ⇌ Which of the following does not belong to the Which of the following regarding stomach is false? anti-hypertensive drug class? 降壓 A. Angiotensin receptor blockers A. Composed of inner circular and outer longitudinal B. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors layers C. Cholinesterase inhibitors — 抑製劑 B. Parietal cells secrete hydrochloric acid for — D. Diuretics activation of pepsinogen to pepsin C. Involves in the digestion of proteins D. Secretion of intrinsic factor for the absorption of vitamin B12 Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following neurotransmitter is of bacteria is true? monoamine type? A. Some of them are not harmful to the body A. Acetylcholine B. Gram positive bacteria stained red B. Dopamine C. They do not have a cell wall C. Glutamate D. Lipopolysaccharide can be found in all kinds of D. Nitric oxide bacteria Which of the following is a RNA virus? Which of the following regarding the brain is true? ←⇌ A. Herpes simplex virus A. The longitudinal fissure of the cerebrum B. Varicella zoster virus separates it from the cerebellum C. Cytomegalovirus B. Limbic system involves in emotion and memory D. Influenza A virus C. The cerebellum is the master of hormonal secretion D. Hypothalamus is located at the brainstem Which of the following statements regarding cell Which of the following hormones is secreted from the membrane is false? adrenal cortex? 腎上腺⽪質 A. It allows all substances to pass through by A. Glucocorticoid 糖⽪貿激素 diffusion B. Growth hormone B. There are receptors on its surface C. Insulin C. It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer D. Luteinizing hormone D. It has protective roles to the cell  ⇌ The most abundant leukocyte cell type is: Which of the following regarding parathyroid hormone is true? 甲狀旁腺激素 A. Lymphocyte A. It is synthesized in the thyroid gland B. Neutrophil B. It can decrease the blood calcium level C. Monocyte C. It promotes the absorption of calcium in the D. Macrophage intestine D. It stimulates osteoblasts activity Which of the following processes increases blood The main nutrient for sperms is: ⇌ pressure? A. Activation of the parasympathetic nervous system A. Glucose B. Increase atrial natriuretic peptide release from B. Fructose the heart C. Proteins C. Reduce cardiac muscle contractility D. Lipids D. Increase renin release from the kidney Surfactant is released by: Which of the following regarding follicular 卵泡發育 development is false? 雌激素 A. Type I pneumocytes A. Oestrogen is secreted by the developing follicles B. Type II pneumocytes B. Ovulation is induced by a surge in follicle C. Type III pneumocytes stimulating hormone release D. Alveolar macrophages C. Follicular development can be stimulated by GnRH production in the hypothalamus D. The matured follicle is called the Graafian follicle Which of the following substances cannot be Which of the following is not an antigen-presenting ⇌ reabsorbed in the renal tubules? cell? A. Glucose A. Neutrophils 中性粒細细胞 B. Insulin B. Macrophages C. Amino acid C. Dendritic cells D. Urea D. B cells ⇌ Which of the following statements regarding bile is Which of the following regarding innate immunity is 先天 false? true? A. It can emulsify fats to become oil droplets A. The response is specific B. It is produced by the gall bladder B. It is mediated by T cells 吞噬作⽤ C. It contains bile salts and cholesterol C. Phagocytosis is an example D. It is released to the duodenum D. It does not involve cytokines Cranial nerve II is: Pentobarbital is a: ⼀ 、 A. Vagus A. Cholinergic drug B. Vestibulocochlear B. GABAergic drug C. Optic C. Dopaminergic drug D. Olfactory D. Adrenergic drug  抗⾎⽔板 Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following drugs has anti-platelet → cardiac muscle is true? activities? A. Its contraction and relaxation is under voluntary control A. Aspirin B. Its contraction and relaxation does not require B. Heparin energy C. Warfarin C. It is not striated D. Plasmin D. It does not fatigue ⇌ The neurotransmitter involved in skeletal muscle Which of the following regarding viruses is true? contraction is: A. Serotonin A. There are DNA and RNA viruses B. Acetylcholine B. They can synthesize proteins on their own C. Dopamine C. They can be eliminated by the administration of D. Glutamate antibiotics D. They can be observed under a light microscope Which of the following is classified as an axial Bovine spongiform encephalopathy is caused by: skeleton? ⽜海狀綿線腦病 A. Sternum A. Bacteria B. Humerus B. Viruses C. Fibula C. Fungi D. Clavicle D. Prions 病毒 — Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following is not a function of the pituitary gland is true? pancreas? A. It is composed of superior and inferior parts A. Produce insulin B. It is a site for mineralocorticoid secretion B. Produce glucocorticoid C. Its secretions are under neuronal control C. Produce glucagon D. It is the master regulator of hormone secretion in D. Produce amylases the body ⇌ Which of the following statements regarding Multiple sclerosis is caused by autoantibodies against: V receptors is true? A. They are protein molecules that can be found A. Synovial membrane only on cell surface B. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor B. Their number on a cell is fixed C. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor C. Their activation will not trigger gene expression D. Myelin sheath D. They are drug targets ⇌ Vaccination is a type of: Which of the following statements regarding pharmacokinetics is false? A. Natural active immunity A. Drugs can be absorbed into the circulation through B. Natural passive immunity the stomach mucosa C. Artificial active immunity B. Albumin is a major drug carrier in blood D. Artificial passive immunity C. Liver enzymes are not involved in drug activation D. Drugs can be eliminated in urine  ⇌ ⇌ Propranolol is a: Which of the following does not belong to the anti-hypertensive drug class? A. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist A. Angiotensin receptor blockers B. Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonist B. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors C. Alpha-adrenergic receptor antagonist C. Cholinesterase inhibitors D. Beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist D. Diuretics Which of the following statements regarding Which of the following is a RNA virus? 、 ⼀ ~ bacteria is true? A. Some of them are not harmful to the body A. Herpes simplex virus B. Gram positive bacteria stained red B. Varicella zoster virus C. They do not have a cell wall C. Cytomegalovirus D. Lipopolysaccharide can be found in all kinds of D. Influenza A virus bacteria Circulatory system Describe blood pressure 1. Force exerted by blood on the vessel wall Blood pressure 2. Measured by sphygmomanometer 3. Distance from the heart inversely proportional to Blood pressures Systolic pressure: Peak pressure in aorta/ large arteries ~120 mmHg Diastolic pressure: Lowest pressure within arteries ~80 mmHg Layers of blood vessels 3 layers Arterioles Capillaries Venules 1. Endothelium Tunica interna Y Y Y 2. Basement membrane 1. Smooth muscles Tunica media Y N Y 2. Elastic fibers 1. Collagen Tunica externa N N Y 2. Elastic fibers Thickness Thickness Thinnest Thinner Substance exchanges N Y N Vasodilation/ Vasoconstriction Y N Y Describe substance exchanges in blood capillaries. 4 ways 1. Diffusion Through endothelial cells 2. Facilitated diffusion 3. Active transport Through endothelial cells Vesicular transport (Bubble transport) Between endothelial cells Hydrostatic pressure (HP) Osmotic pressure (OP) Blood pressure force water Bulk flow 1. Out of blood 1. From the intercellular space →From arterioles to capillary 2. To intercellular space 2. To the blood →Movement of large volumes HP > OP OP > HP of fluid →Net movement of fluid →Net movement of fluid from blood to intercellular space. from intercellular space to blood →Filtration →Absorption Describe cardiac cycle Atrioventricular Semi-lunar Heart 3 steps Atrium Ventricular valves valves sound Atrial systole Contract Relax Open Close Begin of Ventricular systole Relax Contract Close Open systole S1 Begin of Complete diastole Relax Relax Close Close diastole S2  Describe haemostasis Pre 1. Vascular spasm Blood vessels' smooth muscle contraction During 2. Formation of platelet plug Platelet fill up the breaks in vessel wall 3. Coagulation 1. Contact activation Prothrombin→ Thrombin → Intrinsic pathway Post 2. Tissue factor Fibrinogen→ Fibrin →Extrinsic pathway → Formation of blood clot → Obstruct further bleeding → Haemostasis Name two common types of anaemia. (2 marks). 5 types Malfunction of globin chain in heamoglobin Thalassemia → ↓Numbers of heamoglobin in RBC Nature Abnormal destruction of red blood cell Haemolytic anaemia e.g. stickle call anaemia, G6PD → ↓Numbers of RBC Excessive blood loss Haemorrhaegic anaemia → ↓Numbers of RBC Malfunction of bone marrow e.g. radiation Nurture Aplastic anaemia → ↓RBC production Insufficient of iron ion in heme molecule Iron deficiency anaemia → ↓RBC production → ↓Amount of RBC → ↓Haemoglobin in RBC Describe the methods facilitating lymphetic return in the body Describe the methods facilitating venous return in the body (8 marks) 3 Forms Functions One-way valve Prevent back flow of blood 1. Body movement Massaging by skeletal muscle 2. Skeletal muscle contraction 3. Push blood back to the heart 1. Negative pressure on inhalation Pressure differences during ventilation 2. Push blood back to the heart Explain the degradation of erythrocytes. (7 marks) Describe the life cycle of an erythrocyte. (8 marks) Stimulate by erythroprotein (synthesis by kidney) Adult Synthesis → Synthesis at bone marrow (Haematopoiesis) Embryo, sever anemia adult → Synthesis at Liver, spleen Matured RBC after ~120 days Destruction Removed by spleen by phagocytosis (WBC) Globin chain 1. →Amino acids→ recycle for new RBC synthesis Recycle Heme molecule 1. → Iron ion → recycle for new RBC synthesis 2. → Bilirubin→ liver→ excretion in urine and feces Describe the life cycle of an WBC Life cycle Forms Functions 1. Few hours to weeks Granulocytes (~65%, more) 2. Removed by spleen 1. Neutrophils 1. For phagocytosis 3. Destruction of WBC 2. Eosinophils 2. Destroy parasites (react to acid) 3. Basophils 3. Involved in allergy reactions (react to base/ alkaline) Agranulocytes (35%, lesser) 1. Lymphocytes 1. Immune response 2. Monocytes 2. Phagocytic List THREE common ways of carbon dioxide transport in blood. (3 marks) 3 ways Amount (%) Dissolve in plasma ~5-10% Bound to haemoglobin Carbaminohaemoglobin ~5-10% Carried as bicarbonate (HCO3-) in CO2 + H2O H2CO3  H+ + HCO3 ~80-90% plasma Respiratory System Describe gas exchange pathway 1. Pulmonary ventilation Environment Lung 2. External gas exchange Lung  Blood circulation 3. Gas transport Inside blood circulation 4. Internal gas exchange Blood circulation Body cells 5. Cellular respiration Glucose+ O2→CO2+H2O+Energy Describe breathing process Normal Inspiration Expiration Diaphragm Contract, flatten shape Relax, dome shape 1. Scalenes muscle Contract Relax 2. Sternum and upper rib Elevate Lower → Vertical thoracic cavity Expend Collapse Elastic recoil of 1. External intercostal muscle Contract Relax the stretched 2. Ribs Pull upward Move downward lungs → Horizontal thoracic cavity Expend Collapse 1. Intrapulmonary pressure (IP) AP>IP IP>AP 2. Atmospheric pressure (AP) → Net flow of air Flow into the lung Flow out of the lung Forced Inspiration Expiration 1. Accessory muscle 1. Anterior abdominal muscle Muscle contracts 2. Sternomastoid muscle 2. Internal intercostal muscles → Elevate sternum → Push up diaphragm Effects → Elevate upper ribs → Pull rib cage downward and inward →Vertical thoracic cavity Expend Collapse → Horizontal thoracic cavity Intrapulmonary pressure (IP) AP>IP IP>AP Atmospheric pressure (AP) → Net flow of air Flow into the lung Flow out of the lung Explain the protective mechanisms against the entry of foreign substances through inhalation by the structures of the airway. (16 marks) Forms Functions Anterior of skull 1. Warm up, moisture air Opening orifices 2. Mucus trap particulate matter Nose Divided by nasal septum 3. Cilia sweep particulates to pharynx Respiratory epithelium lining Inside the skull Divided by bony septum Roof Electric signal via Cranial Nerve I to brain 1. Olfactory Appartus → Smell perception Nasal cavity Floor Soft plate move upward during swallowing 1. Anterior Bony palate → Prevent food enter nasopharynx 2. Posterior Soft palate 1. Superior 1. Projections of lateral ↑Epithelial lining surface area Conches 2. Middle walls 1. Warm up, moisture , cleansing air Upper respiratory system 3. Inferior 2. Respiatory 2. Mucus trap particulate matter epithelium lining 3. Cllia sweep particulates to pharynx 1. Frontal 1. Hollow 1. Make the skull lighter 2. Sphenoid 2. Air filled 2. Resonance to voice Paranasal sinuses 3. Maxillary 3. Respiatory 1. Warm up and moisture air 4. Ethmoid epithelium lining 2. Mucus trap particulate matter 3. Cilia sweep particulates to pharynx 1. Hollow 1. Asist swallowing 2. Respiatory epithelium lining 2. Mucus trap particulate matter 3. With skeletal muscle 3. Cilia sweep particulates to pharynx Eustachian tubes → Connect to middle ear for pressure Posterior to the nasal Pharynx (throat) Upper nasopharynx balance cavity Pharyngel tonsil, tubal tonsil → Immune system 1. Palatine tonsils, lingual tonsils Middle oropharynx Posterior to the mouth 2. Immune system Lower Superior to the larynx Food and air passage meet Laryngopharynx Narrowest part  1. Skeletal muscle 1. Air conduction 2. Ligaments 2. Food diversion 3. Cartilage 3. Assit speech (vocal cord) 1. Move downward Larynx Epiglottis Cartilage 2. Cover the trachea during swallowing Adman's apple(喉结) Thyroid cartilage More obvious in male Above tracheal cartilage Cricoid cartilage Below thyroid cartilage Twin inflodings of mucous membrane stretched 1. Produce sound by vibrating horizontally across the larynx 2. Frequency controls pitch of sound Upper set 3. Pressure controls loudness Vocal cord Vestibular folds (false vocal cord) Lower set Vocal folds (true vocal cord) Male: longer and thicker Lower respiratory system Female: shorter and thinner 1. Respiratory mucous membrane 1. Mucus trap particulate matter (3 layers) Trachea 2. 16-20 C-shaped tracheal cartilage 2. Cilia sweep mucus to pharynx ) 3. Outer firbrous tissue 3. Coughed or swallowed Right and left main stem bronchi Along the bronchial tree Primary (＊Bronchus lumen: Right > Left) 1. Fewer cilia and goblet cell Bronchial tree Secondary Lobar bronchi →↓Mucus secrection Tertiary Segmental bronchi 2. ↑Smooth muscle content Smaller Bronchioles ranks →C-shaped cartilage disappeared Respiratory Alveolar duct zone 1. Surrounded by blood capiliaries 1. ↑Gases exchange 2. Thin membrane (one cell thick) 2. ↑Diffusion rate via the air sacs to the blood 1. Type I pneumocyte (larger amount) 1. Inner most layer in the air sac's wall (Air sacs) 2. Rest on basement membrane Alveoli 3 Cell types 3. Thin and flat squamous epitheial cells 2. Type II pneumocyte (lesser amount) 1. Keep air sacs open →Secrete surfactant 2. Immune system → Secrete anti-microbial proteins 3. Alveolar macrophages Removal of dust and bacteria Define tidal volume (TV), inspiratory reserve volume (IRV), vital capacity (VC) and residual volume (RV). (4 marks) Total lung capacity (~5-6L) Entire volume of air that the lung can hold =VC+ RV Vital capacity (VC) (~3.1L) Residual volume (RV) Total amount of air can be removed in a breath with maxium inhalation and Volume of air in the maxium exhalation lungs that cannot be =TV+ IRV+ERV expelled ＊ FEV1 Test Forced expiratory volume in 1 second Functional residual capacity (FRC) (~2.9L) 1. Breath with maxium inhalation Volume of air remaining in the lung Procedure 2. Maxium exhalation as rapid as = ERV+ RV possible until no extra air exhalded Normal outcome 80% of VC Inspiratory reserve volume Tidal volume (TV) (~500ml) Expiratory reserve Residual volume (RV) (IRV) (~1.9L) volume (ERV) (~1.1L) Volume of air moving into (~700ml) Volume of air in the Extra volume of air that can and out of the lung Extra volume of lungs that cannot be be inhaled in quiet breathing air exhaled expelled forcibly Digestive System Describe forms and functions of GI tract Forms Functions Stratified squamous mucosa 1. For manipulating food Withstand friction 2. Chewing and swallowing 1. Hard surface for tongue Hard palate Mouth 2. Manipulate food Roof of the mouth (oral cavity) 1. Mobile Soft palate 2. Prevent food enter nasopharynx 1. For chewing, swallowing and speech. Floor of the mouth Tongue 2. With taste buds, sense taste 1. Mucosa 4 layers 2. Submucosa in rest of 3. Muscularis externa GI tract (Smooth muscle ) 4. Serosa Thick-walled tube of smooth muscle Stratified squamous epithelium 1. ~25 cm long 2. Begins from the lower end of laryngopharynx 3. Passes through an opening in the Oesophagus Propagate food along to the stomach diaphragm (hiatus) Structure 4. Ends at the attachment to the stomach (gastroesophageal junction) 5. Upper esophageal sphincter (Voluntary muscle) 1. Meets the oesophagus and Location empties into the duodenum 2. With cardic and pyloric 1. As “holding tank” sphincters (smooth muscle) 2. Mix and churn food Stomach 1. Cardia (adjoins the oesophagus) 3. Mainly for protein digestion 2. Fundus 4. Minimal absorption of water, alcohol, Structure 3. Body (the largest part) drugs 4. Pylorus funnel-shaped region, connects to the duodenum)  1. ~10 ft long Location 2. From the distal end of the stomach to ileocecal valve Duodenum Chemical digestion and absorption Structure Jejunum Nutrient absorption Ileum Absorbs nutrients and bile salts Small Increases staying time of chyme intestine Folding of small intestine → Enhance absorption 3 Features enhance Microvillus Further increases Surface area adsorption Increase surface area for 1. Capillaries Villi → Absorption of non-lipid nutrients (Tall columnar cells) 2. Lacteal → Absorption of lipids Location Colon joins the small intestine via the ileocecal valve 1. Caecum with appendix 2. Ascending colon Structure 3. Transverse colon Large 4. Descending colon Absorb water in feces intestine 5. Sigmoid colon No villi No enzyme Features No hormone-secreting cells secrete mucus for lubrication feces movement 1. Feces → Water + salts → Indigestible food matter → Shed intestinal epithelial cells Trigger Defecation reflex → Bacteria Rectum 2. Feces reaching the rectum then Anal canal accumulate Anus 3. Increasing pressure distends the rectum 1. Internal involuntary smooth muscle ring Internal anal sphincter Enable defecation (expulsion of feces) 2. External ring of skeletal muscle External anal sphincter Describe 3 functions of colonic bacteria Protection Maintain internal environment Produce Vitamin K Metabolize Breakdown Bilirubin to brown pigment (feces color) Describe function of intestinal glands 1. Secrete water and mucus Intestinal glands 2. Intestinal juice, alkaline in nature Secretes Endocrine 1. Secretin cells 2. Cholecystokinin 3 types Absorptive Absorb nutrients epithelial cells Goblet cells Secretes mucus for lubrication Describe lipid function 4 functions Break down for energy Triglyceride → 2 fatty acids + 1monoglyceride 1. Build cell membrane →phospholipid bilayer Structural component 2. Steroid →Maintain stabilize of call membrane, cholesterol →As hormone 1. Carries fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) into body 2. As lipoprotein →Carry triglyceride and cholesterol in blood 1. Very low density lipoprotein → Mostly lipid, very little protein Transportation 2. Low density lipoprotein → More protein and less lipid →Transport cholesterol to cells 3. High density lipoprotein → Mostly protein, very little lipid → Eliminate cholesterol Cushion internal organ Explain the neural and endocrine control of lipid digestion in the small intestine. (14 marks) Chemical receptors Mechanical receptors Stimulus vision, smell, taste, nerve signal to brain Nerves signals pass through vagus nerve of autonomic nervous system (ANS) from brain 1. Stimulate 1. Stimulate Perception Chief cell Stomach smooth muscle contraction to brain Response → Inactive pepsinogen 2. Stimulate Parietal cell → HCL Stimulus Protein, peptide and amino acids Distension of the stomach 1. Stimulate 2. Stimulate G cell Intensify stomach smooth muscle Stomach → Gastrin contraction Response 2. Stimulate Parietal cell →HCL →Activate pepsinogen → Pepsin Chemical receptors Stimulus Protein and fats, Glucose Acid 1. Stimulate 1. Stimulate 1. Stimulate Intestinal gland Duodenal mucosa Intestinal gland → Cholecystokinin (CCK) → Gastric inhibitory from duodenal peptide (GIP) epithelial gland 2. Stimulate → Secretin Contraction of gall bladder 2. Stimulate Temporally store bile → Insulin 2. Stimulate → Bile juice Pancreas Intestines → Alkaline juice Response 3. Stimulate → Neutralization Pancreas → Pancreatic juice 4. Stimulate Relax of hepatopancreatic sphincter → Pancreatic juice →Bile juice Draw into duodenum Describe the stages of digestion. (6 marks) 6 stages Functions Ingestion Bring food content into oral cavity Secretion Release fluid (water and enzyme)into lumen by epithelial cells in GI tract Mechanical 1. Tear and cut down food molecule by teeth Digestion 2. Churning food content by stomach Chemical 1. Secrete enzyme to break down food Movement of material along the GI tract by muscular contraction Peristalsis 1. Push food along GI tract Motility 2. Less occur in small intestine Segmentation 1. Mix food content 2. Mainly occur in small intestine Absorption Uptake of small molecules from GI tract to blood and lymph Defecation Passage of feces contains indigestible food contents, bacteria and wastes etc. Describe the chemical digestion processes of proteins in the body. (5 marks) Explain the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates in the body. (12 marks) Forms Functions Oral cavity Salivary glands → Salivary amylase Starch → Maltose 1. Chief cell 1. Pepsinogen 2. Parietal cell 2. HCL→ Activate pepsinogen → Pepsin 3. G cell → Protein → Polypeptide→ Peptide→ Amino Stomach acids 3. Gastrin → Stimulate parietal cell secret more HCL 1. Pancreatic amylase 1. Starch → Maltose. 2. Brush border enzyme maltase 2. Maltose → Glucose 3. Brush border enzyme sucrase 3. Sucrose → Glucose + Fructose 4. Brush border enzyme lactase 4. Lactose → Glucose + Galactose Pancreas 1. Pancreatic protease 1. Polypeptides → Short peptides 2. Brush border enzyme peptidases 2. Peptide chain → Amino acids 1. Pancreatic lipase 1. Triglyceride → 2 Fatty acids + 1 Monoglyceride Explain the swallowing process. (11 marks) Forms Functions Mouth 1. Reflex contraction of pharyngeal 1. Tongue push food bolus to Pre → oropharynx muscle laryngopharynx 1. Soft palate move upward 1. Prevent food content enter Oropharynx → During nasopharynx laryngopharynx 2. Epiglottis moves down 2. Prevent food content enter airway 1. Relaxation of upper oesophageal 1. Allow food to enter oesophagus sphincter Oseophagus 2. Food bolus passes along 2. Push food forward to the stomach Post → stomach oseophagus by peristalsis 3. Relaxation of lower oesophageal 3. Allow food bolus to enter stomach sphincter Base on the function of the bile, explain how the removal of the gall bladder affects the digestion of lipids. (8 marks) Presents of gall bladder Removal of gall bladder Gall bladder Temporarily stored Not able to stored 1. Bile More Lesser Bile 2. Bile salt More Lesser 3. Emulsify fats into droplets More Slow down 1. Surface area of fats breakdown Increase Decrease Pancreas 2. Digestion of fats Triglyceride → 2 fatty acids + 1monoglyceride Complete Incomplete 1. Liver release bile Lesser More Outcome 2. Liver work load Normal Increase 3. Fats in stool No More chance Based on the function of the stomach, explain the effects of gastrectomy (surgical removal of the stomach) on digestion. (9 marks) Presents of stomach Removal of stomach Physical 1. Volume to hold food Normal Loss 2. Food pass through GI tract Slower Faster 3. Time to mix and churn food More Lesser 4. Food convert into chyme More Lesser Outcome Digestive ability Normal digestion Gastric dumping syndrome Chemical Parietal cells secrete intrinsic Presents of parietal cell No Parietal cells factor Outcome Absorption of vitamin B12 Normal absorption Decrease absorption Urinary system Describe osmolarity Ability to attract water molecule Water concentration gradient Osmolarity (mOsm/ L) Osmosis Water concentration Solute concentration milliosmoles per liter To High To Low Low High From Low From High High Low Describe forms and functions of urinary tract Forms Functions Near the vertebral column Location Between twelfth thoracic vertebra and third External lumbar Paired, Bean-shaped, Fist-sized Structure Left side slightly higher than the right side Blood Renal arteries and renal veins Electrolyte balance Kidneys Pale outer Water balance cortex Acid-base balance Dark inner Renal pyramids: cone-shaped Internal medulla Nephrons: functional unit of kidneys Renal pelvis passage of Renal papilla urine Calyces Stretchable transitional 3 layers Inner layer - mucosa epithelial cells In rest Middle layer- muscularis Smooth muscles tissues Outer layer- adventitia Loose layer of fibrous tissue 1. Trigone Location 2. Floor of bladder triangular zone 1. Right and left ureteral orifices Structure 2. Join center line point of bladder and urethra Transport Ureters orifices Flap of bladder wall Create one-way valve Prevent reflux of urine to the tissue to ureteral urine from Open urinary bladder orifices bladder to ureter Bladder relaxed Valves open Allow urine flow Close from bladder to ureter Urinary bladder Anterior to Location Males : rectum Females : vagina Temporary storage of urine Middle muscle (detrusor muscle) (max. capacity ~700 mL) Structure Controled by ANS Covered by peritoneal membrane externally Male: via the centre of the prostate gland Location and penis Female : between clitoris and the vagina Male: ~17 cm Structure Female: ~4 cm (more risk in bladder infections) Urethra Narrow tube leading from the 1. Upstream ring bladder to the environment Internal urethral Smooth muscle Internal Opening orifice 2. Downstream ring Skeletal muscle External urethral External orifice Describe body fluid from in cellular and blood vessel perspective Body Blood vessels Cells Barriers Vascular endothelium Cell membrane Intravascular fluid Within blood vessels Extravascular fluid Intracellular fluid Body fluid Outside blood vessels Within the cells ~65% Extracellular fluid Blood plasma ~20% Outside the cells ~35% Interstitial fluid ~80% Permeable to capillaries Selectively permeable to cell membranes 1. Dissolved in water 2. Salts separate into ions Electrolytes 3. Atom/ molecule with a net + / - electric charge Cation: Na+ , K+ Anions: Cl- , HCO3- Describe the essential steps in urine concentration. (6 marks) 2 steps Forms Functions 1. Nephron loops 1. Build up medullary osmotic gradient Pre 2. Juxtamedullary nephron 2. Deeper the medullary regions higher the osmotic pressure 1. Collecting duct runs in parallel to 1. Build up medullary osmotic gradient the nephron loop in nephron loop Post 2. Tubular fluid descends to the 2. Osmotic pressure increase in the medullar in the collecting duct downward the medullar → More water is drawn from the tubular fluid to the blood Voluntary control of sphincter muscles is important for controlling timely waste disposal in the body. Illustrate the process with examples. (10 marks) Describe the necessary muscular activities involved in micturition. (4 marks) 1. Release of urine from the bladder Stimulation 2. Urine volume reaching 300 ml 3. Bladder wall stretched Initial Stretch Send signals to cerebral cortex stimulation Receptor 1. Awareness of bladder filling Brain Cerebral cortex 2. Interprets the urge to urinate Stimulation Further increase in urine volume induces more stretching Stretch Send signals to spinal cord and cerebral cortex Receptor Spinal cord reflex Parasympathetic nerve Further Brain centre Autonomic micturition reflex stimulation Cerebral cortex Cerebral cortex interprets the urge to urinate 1. Contract 1. Detrusor muscle in the bladder Smooth muscle Effector 2. Relax 2. Internal urethral sphincter Skeletal muscle 1. Relax 1. External urethral sphincter Explain why diabetes may cause an increase in the production and passage of urine. (5 marks) Normal blood glucose level Too High blood glucose level (Diabetes) After tubular reabsorption Tubular fluid glucose Absences Remain high concentration Osmotic pressure Tubular fluid > Peritubular capillaries Tubular fluid < Peritubular capillaries From tubular fluid From peritubular capillaries Net flow of water To peritubular capillaries To tubular fluid Urine production Normal Increase Describe urine production process Forms Functions Filtration membrane Blood pressure forces fluid across filtration 1. Capillary endothelial cells membrane Structure Glomerular filtration 2. Capillary basement membrane 1. Hydrostatic pressure 3. Podocyte (filtration slits) Blood → glomerular capsule Glomerular filtrate 2. Osmotic pressures 1. Water, ions, nutrients, wastes Blood → glomerular filtrate Glomerular 2. No blood cells and proteins capsule Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) Volume of glomerular filtrate formed per minute 1. ↓Volume of glomerular filtrate Occurs mainly in the proximal tubule →↑Volume of urine Tubular reabsorption to blood 1. Primary active transport → Sodium ion (Na+), Cloride ion (Cl-) follows 2. Secondary active transport 1. From tubular fluid to the blood → Glucose, phosphate, Amino acids 2. Via peritubular capillaries 3. Osmosis → Water 4. Concentrated and reabsorbed → Other solutes Proximal tubule secret secretion Tubular 1. Creatinine From peritubular capillaries to tubular fluid 2. Hydrogen ion (H+) 3. Some drugs 1. ↑Water reabsorption concentration 2. ↑Urine concentration Urine Occurs in the collecting duct and the nephron loop Endocrine system Describe similar and differences of endocrine system and nervous system. Endocrine system Nervous system Functions Homeostasis Speed Slow Fast Transmitter Chemical ligands Electric signals (O2, CO2, protein, lipid) (+/- ions) Affected Wide Specific region Medium Blood Neurons Describe hypothalamus and pituitary glands in term of their functions Forms Hormones Function 1. Portion of the brain 1. Stimulate / inhibit →Posterior pituitary gland 2. Secretion of pituitary →Anterior pituitary gland Releasing hormones/ hormones to target Hypothalamus 2. Links to Hypothalamic hormones cell →Endocrine system →Nervous system 1. Extension of the Promote water retention in Anti-diuretic hypothalamus the body hormone(ADH) Posterior 2. Store hypothalamic pituitary gland hormones Facilitate uterine (muscle) Oxytocin contraction during child birth 1. Gland Gonadotrophins Regulate ovum and testes 2. Receive releasing hormone 1. Folicle stimluating production from hypothalamus. hormone (FSH) 3. Secret stimulating hormone 2. Lutinlizing hormone to target cell (LH) 1. Regulate mammary glands 2. Produce milk in breast Anterior Prolactin feeding pituitary 3. Stimulate by baby sucking Adrenocorticotrophin Regulate adrenal cortex (ACTH) Thyroid-stimulating Regulate thyroid gland hormone (TSH) metabolism Stimulate bone and muscle Growth hormone growth cell metabolism Explain the blood glucose regulation in endocrine perspective 1. If blood glucose level↑ 1. If blood glucose level↓ 2. Intestinal gland secretes Gastric 2. Nutrient deficiency Stimulation Inhibitory Peptide (GIP) → Secretion of insulin → Secretion of glucagon 1. Inhibit breakdown lipid and protein 1. Break down glycogen into glucose in in to glucose liver 2. Stimulate synthesis of protein and 2. Break down lipid and protein (amino lipid from glucose acids) into glucose 3. Increase uptake of glucose to fat Responses cells and muscle cells 4. Increase cell glucose utilization (=Usage of glucose break down into energy) → Then blood glucose level↓ →Then blood glucose level↑ Explain the effects of parathyroid hormone on blood calcium regulation. (6 marks) 4 Systems If blood calcium level↑ If blood calcium level↓ Release Hormonal 1. Stimulates thyroid gland 1. Stimulates parathyroid gland hormone system 2. Release Calcitonin (降鈣素) 2. Release parathyroid hormone (PTH) Calcitonin Parathyroid hormone (PTH) 1. Inhibit Osteoclast activity 1. Stimulate Osteoclast activity (Crack down bone) (Crack down bone) Skeletal →Inhibit bone break down → Stimulate bone break down system (Calcium 2. Stimulate Osteoblast activity 2. Inhibit Osteoblast activity bank) (Build up bone) (Build up bone) Stimulate →Stimulate bone deposition and → Inhibit bone deposition and synthesis Target synthesis systems 1. Vitamin D with sunlight through activity kidney and liver process Digestive 2. Synthesis activate vitamin D system (Calcitriol) 1. Inhibit the calcium absorption 3. Stimulate the calcium absorption in in small intestine small intestine Urinary Inhibit calcium reabsorption in Stimulate calcium reabsorption in kidney system kidney Then blood calcium level↓ Then blood calcium level↑ Describe the Hormonal influence in urine concentration. 2 Systems Forms Function 1. Posterior pituitary gland release 1. Stimulates the insertion of aquaporin Endocrine 2. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) 2. ↑Water retention 1. Insertion aquaporin (water 1. From the tubular fluid to the blood channel protein) urine concentration Urinary 2. On the surface of the cell 2. More water is reabsorbed by osmosis membrane in collecting duct Explain the mechanisms of actions of diuretics in the regulation of blood pressure. (5 marks) 2 systems Diuretics Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) Urinary Water retention ↓ ↑ Volume of ↓ ↑ Circulatory water 1. CO = SV x HR Stroke volume ↓ ↑ 2. BP = CO x PR Cardiac output ↓ ↑ Blood pressure ↓ ↑ Explain why blocking the action of aldosterone can reduce blood pressure. (5 marks) 3 systems Aldosterone Blocked aldosterone Regulated Sodium 1. Adrenal cortex 1. Adrenal cortex Endocrine (Na+) balance 2. Release aldosterone 2. Inhabit release aldosterone Number of sodium-potassium ↑ ↓ pumps Urinary Renal sodium reabsorption in the ↑ ↓ collecting duct Blood sodium ↑ ↓ Water drawn from collecting duct to ↑ ↓ Circulatory blood by osmosis 1. CO = SV x HR Volume of water ↑ ↓ 2. BP = CO x PR Stroke volume ↑ ↓ Cardiac output ↑ ↓ Blood pressure ↑ ↓ Nervous system Outline the reflex arc using knee-jerk reflex as an example. (5 marks) Somatic Nervous system (SNS) Autonomic Nervous system (ANS) Voluntary Voluntary Involuntary reflex Involuntary Conscious Conscious Unconscious Muscles Skeletal Smooth 1. Stimulus 1. Stimulus Sensory 2. Sensory signals 2. Sensory signals 3. Somatic receptors 3. Visceral receptors 4. Somatic sensory nerves 4. Autonomic sensory nerves Sensory pathway 1. Brain Integration 1. Central Nervous 1. CNS (Central Nervous System) System (CNS) Brain 2. Conscious 2. conscious 2. Brain conscious awareness experience awareness 1. Motor signals 1. Motor signals Motor 2. Motor nerves 2. Autonomic motor nerves 3. Skeletal muscles 3. Smooth muscles/ cardiac muscles/ glands 4. Response 4. Response Number Single neuron connects from CNS to target 2 neurons (sympathetic /parasympathetic) of cell Connect to target organ neurons Neurotran 1. Acetylcholine 1. Acetylcholine smitter 2. Norepinephrine Describe sympathetic nerve and parasympathetic nerve Sympathetic nerve Parasympathetic nerve Functions Fight or flight Rest and digest Neurotransmitter Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Outcomes Exited or stressed of body function Maintenance of body basal state 1. Skeletal muscle 1. Reproductive organs Affected regions 2. Bladder 1. when being stress/ excited 1. Ganglia lie near / in target organ Pathway 2. Nerves leaves from thoracic and 2. Nerves leave from brain and sacral lumbar regions of spinal cord region of spinal cord Explain the detection of salty taste by the gustatory receptor cells. (7 marks) Gustatory Olfactory Stimulus Sodium ions (Na+) in salt (NaCl) Odorant molecules 1 Sodium ions (Na+) bind to receptors of taste 1. Bind to receptors in the cilia of olfactory Sensory pathway buds receptor cells → Open voltage-gated calcium channels → Calcium enters the cell → Neurotransmitter release 2 Depolarize receptor cells