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Questions and Answers

What constitutes the main components of the earth system?

Geosphere and biosphere (correct)

Atmosphere and geosphere

Lithosphere and biosphere

Hydrosphere and atmosphere

Which of the following best describes the features of a natural system?

Components operate independently with no interactions

It is primarily influenced by external factors only

There is a coherent structure that includes feedback mechanisms (correct)

Each component serves the same function

Which of the following components is not considered part of an ecosystem?

Consumers

Primary producers

Decomposers

Clouds (correct)

What is described as the sequence of plants and animals feeding on one another?

Food chain Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of ecosystems regarding ecological processes?

Material recycling Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following pairs of ecosystems can be categorized as types of ecosystems?

Terrestrial and Aquatic Signup and view all the answers

How do the components of an ecosystem interact?

Through complex interrelationships tailored to specific environments Signup and view all the answers

Which role do decomposers play within an ecosystem?

They help in breaking down dead matter Signup and view all the answers

What is defined as the graphical representation of relationships between living organisms at different trophic levels?

Ecological Pyramid Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes genetic diversity?

All different genes in living species Signup and view all the answers

What are the two key components of biodiversity measurement?

Richness and Evenness Signup and view all the answers

Which biodiversity index is specifically named in the content?

Shannon Index Signup and view all the answers

How is a species typically defined?

A group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring Signup and view all the answers

Which category is NOT part of the conservation status as outlined by the IUCN?

Threatened Signup and view all the answers

What does 'evenness' refer to in the context of biodiversity?

The relative abundance of different species Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of biodiversity mentioned?

Behavioral diversity Signup and view all the answers

Which organisms are identified as pioneers of primary succession?

Lichens and mosses Signup and view all the answers

What primarily triggers the onset of primary succession?

Melting glaciers and volcanic eruptions Signup and view all the answers

What defines a climax community?

A community where species composition remains stable over time Signup and view all the answers

Which process is NOT part of ecological succession?

Migration Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes secondary succession?

It begins after a disturbance such as fire or tree fall. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between primary and secondary succession?

Secondary succession begins in an environment already containing soil. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common example of a disturbance in forest ecosystems?

Wildfire Signup and view all the answers

How does the recovery process during secondary succession compare to primary succession?

Secondary succession typically happens at a quicker rate. Signup and view all the answers

What is considered the primary disturbance affecting forests?

Forest Fires Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key characteristic of light-demanding species?

Can survive under full sunlight Signup and view all the answers

How does natural regeneration primarily occur in forests?

Via self-sown seeds and vegetative methods Signup and view all the answers

What type of forests are entirely reliant on seed regeneration after disturbances?

Obligate Seeder forests Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT considered a disturbance event in forests?

Animal Migration Signup and view all the answers

Which biome characteristic is crucial for understanding the distribution of biomes?

Geographic location Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining process in the regeneration of forests after fire?

Seed germination Signup and view all the answers

Which of these best describes shade-tolerant species?

They only establish under tree canopies Signup and view all the answers

What criterion does NOT contribute to evaluating the conservation status of a taxon?

Habitat suitability Signup and view all the answers

Which IUCN category indicates a species that is no longer found in its natural habitat but survives in cultivation?

Extinct in the Wild Signup and view all the answers

What category is given to a taxon that is close to being categorized as threatened but is not currently threatened?

Near Threatened Signup and view all the answers

Which category indicates that there is insufficient data to evaluate a taxon's conservation status?

Data Deficient Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Extinct' (EX) denote in IUCN categories?

Last individual has died after extensive surveys Signup and view all the answers

Which conservation category reflects that a taxon is widespread and abundant with no current risk of extinction?

Least Concern Signup and view all the answers

What is the main significance of tracking the IUCN red list?

Monitoring the overall status of biodiversity Signup and view all the answers

What does the category 'Vulnerable' (VU) imply about a taxon?

It faces a high risk of extinction in the wild Signup and view all the answers

What defines a species' ecological niche?

The resources and conditions enabling viable population maintenance Signup and view all the answers

What typically happens when two species occupy the same niche?

One species will potentially exclude the other Signup and view all the answers

Which type of succession begins from barren land to establish a forest ecosystem?

Primary succession Signup and view all the answers

What are pioneer species known for in an ecosystem?

Being the first to colonize and develop an ecosystem Signup and view all the answers

What is true about partial niche overlap between two species?

It allows both species to coexist if competition is minimal Signup and view all the answers

In ecological terms, what does a niche encompass?

The functions and interactions of the species within its ecosystem Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the climax stage of succession?

A stable and well-developed ecosystem Signup and view all the answers

What is one major implication of the biodiversity loss?

Threat to species survival and ecosystem functions Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Course Information (PM 11023)

Three credit course
Includes theory, practical, and independent learning
Assessment: 30% coursework (theory and practical), 70% end-semester exam
Exam format includes multiple-choice questions, structured essays, and essays

Course Content

Principles of Environmental Science
Ecology
Principles of Forestry Science

Earth System

Consists of land, water, and atmosphere (abiotic components)
Also includes biotic components: trees, animals, and biological environments
Refers to all physical, chemical, and biological processes of the Earth systems, and their interactions and feedback

Components of the Earth

Primarily composed of geosphere and biosphere
Geosphere components include lithosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and atmosphere

Features of a Natural System

Components interact with each other
Components form a coherent structure
Exhibits self-regulatory power
Shows positive, negative, or both types of feedback mechanisms
Each sub-component plays a specific function

Ecosystems

A complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all their interrelationships within a particular area
Can vary in size
Examples include terrestrial, marine, and aquatic ecosystems

Components of Ecosystems

Biotic components: producers, consumers, and decomposers
Abiotic components: water, soil, and air
Interactions among components

Functions in Ecosystems

Regulates essential ecological processes like material recycling
Supports life systems and food relations
Maintains ecological stability

Food Relations

Food chains: sequence of plants and animals feeding on one another
Food webs: complex relationships formed when food chains connect

Ecological Pyramids

Graphical representations of relationships between living organisms at different trophic levels
Examples include pyramids of biomass, numbers, and energy

Biodiversity

Three main types: habitat, genetic, and species diversity
Genetic diversity: all different genes within all living species
Species diversity: all different species and their variations
Ecosystem diversity: different habitats, biological communities, and ecological processes

Biodiversity Measurements

Richness: number of species
Evenness: relative abundance of different species

Biodiversity Indices

Shannon Index (H')
Simpson's Index (λ)
IV value

Species

Defined as groups of organisms capable of natural reproduction and creating fertile offspring within their group
Also defined as a group of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, reproductively isolated from other groups

Conservation Status of Species

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) develop conservation categories
Categories include Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, and others

Five Criteria for Evaluating Conservation Status

Rate of population decline
Geographic range
Small population size
Restricted area
Probability of extinction in the wild

Not Evaluated (NE)
Data Deficient (DD)
Least Concern (LC)
Near Threatened (NT)
Vulnerable (VU)
Endangered (EN)
Critically Endangered (CR)
Extinct in the Wild (EW)
Extinct (EX)

Importance of IUCN Red List

Determining the overall status of biodiversity
Tracking changes in biodiversity over time
Evaluating conservation status of each species
Assessing biodiversity loss rates
Identifying areas with rapid biodiversity loss
Determining reasons for species loss

Ecological Niche of a Species

Defined as the range of resources and conditions allowing the species to maintain a viable population
Includes the species' habitat, relationships with other species, and methods of acquiring nutrition

Competition Between Species

If two species have the same ecological niche, one species will likely outcompete the other
The superior species will dominate, and the other usually disappears from the ecosystem

Species compete in overlapping portions of a niche for resources, nesting sites, or territory
Minimal overlap allows coexistence

Ecological Succession

Directional change in plant species that occupy an area over time
Two main types:
- Primary succession: occurs on newly exposed land areas like those created by retreating glaciers
- Secondary succession: occurs after a disturbance in a pre-existing ecosystem, such as a forest fire

Primary Succession

Starts on barren land
Pioneer plants (e.g., mosses and lichens) colonize the area
Gradually creates conditions for other plant communities to become established

Stages of Vegetation Formation

Pioneers: the initial stage in vegetation formation; experience harsh conditions
Sub-climax: intermediate stage
Pre-climax: stage preceding the climax vegetation
Climax: stable, well-developed vegetation stage

Pioneer Species

Occupy the earliest stages of development
Includes plants of primary secession (lichens, mosses, grasses) and secondary secession (fast-growing trees)

Climax Community

Represents the stable end point of succession
Species composition ceases to change over time

Primary Succession Occurrences

Melting glaciers
Volcanic eruptions/lava flows
Volcanic explosions
Sand dunes

Plant Succession

A directional and non-seasonal cumulative change in plant species that occupy an area over time
Involves: colonization, establishment, and extinction

Stable Equilibrium

Climax community reaches an equilibrium point where it is stable

Disturbances in Forests

Significant changes in forest ecosystems
Examples include wildfires, logging, pest damage, diseases

Secondary Succession

Re-colonization of areas after disturbances like a fire or a falling large tree
Typically proceeds faster than primary succession because fertile soil already exists

Disturbance Events in Forests

Forest fires
Disease
Climatic conditions (cyclone, hurricanes, droughts)
Human disturbance (clear cutting, cultivation)
Forest dieback from insect outbreaks
Storms
Severe flooding

Forest Fires

A significant disturbance
The Black Saturday Fires (2009 - Victoria, Australia)

Other Common Forest Disturbances

Storms
Insect damage and forest dieback

Forest Regeneration

Natural regeneration: forest establishment through natural processes
Involves methods like seed dispersal, root suckers, and coppicing

Start Regeneration After Disturbances

Fire: seed regeneration or vegetative regeneration (resprouting)
Light demanding species often start secondary succession.

Light Demand Species

The first to appear in secondary succession
Need sunlight for establishment, maintenance, and completing their life cycle

Shade-Tolerant Species

Can survive and establish under tree canopies
Require shade for survival, maintenance, and reproduction
Often found in sub-dominant layers of forests

Biomes

Major regional groupings of distinctive plant and animal communities
Adaptations of vegetation to the unique climate and soil of a region
Types of animals and their adaptations within each biome

Major Biomes

A map showing the world's major biomes (e.g., tundra, taiga, temperate deciduous forest, grassland, desert, tropical rain forest, temperate rain forest)

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