06_02_24 Midterm Retake Review Quiz PDF

Unit 1: human geography - greek roots meaning writing about (description of) the earth and is the study of the Earth's surface as a collection of meaningful places; how these places are distributed across space and connected into networks and how they are the product of interactio...

Unit 1: human geography - greek roots meaning writing about (description of) the earth and is the study of the Earth's surface as a collection of meaningful places; how these places are distributed across space and connected into networks and how they are the product of interactions between human beings and the physical environment- interactions resulting in, and mediated by, cultural landscapes ○ Herodotus vs. Eratosthenes: Herodotus, “Father of History,” known for labeling geography (“earth’s writings”). Eratosthenes, who estimated the circumference of Earth, also specialized in geometry (“Earth measurement”). ○ place/topography: place in human geography focuses on the unique characteristics and cultural significance of a location, while topography deals with the physical landscape and its influence on human activity. ○ space/chorography: space deals with the abstract, quantitative aspects of geography, while chorography focuses on detailed, qualitative descriptions of specific areas. ○ cultural landscape: the visible imprint of human activity and culture on the landscape, including buildings, roads, agriculture, and other elements. ○ environmental determinism: that human society is molded by the particular environment in which it develops. ○ Possibilism: humans have the ability to adapt and modify their environment to suit their needs. Spatial Analysis: the study of patterns and relationships within geographic data, often using techniques such as GIS (Geographical Information Systems) and statistical analysis. Reading the Landscape: The interpretation of the physical and cultural features of a landscape to understand its history, ecology, and human use. Geographical Imagination: The ability to think spatially and understand the connections between people, places, and environments. Occidentalism: refers to the representation or portrayal of the Western World (particularly Europe and North America) in literature, art, and media from a non-Western perspective. It often involves stereotypes or negative portrayals of Western culture and values. Location: ○ Absolute - the exact position of a point or place on earth’s surface, often using coordinates. ○ Relative - the position of a point or place in relation to other features or landmarks ○ Nominal - a broad or general description of a place's position, often without specific coordinates.  U.S. Rectangular Land Survey (Public Land Survey System): A method of land surveying used in the USA to divide and describe land parcels based on a grid system of townships, sections, and ranges. It was established by the Land Ordinance of 1785. Geographic Density: refers to the concentration of people, objects, or features within a given geographic area. ○ Crude: total population / total land area ○ Physiological: total population / farmland area ○ Agricultural: farm population / farmland area Map Scale: the ratio between distances on a map and corresponding distances on the earth's surface. ○ A small-scale map is one that displays a relatively large area of Earth’s surface (a global perspective) ○ a large-scale map is one that displays a relatively small area of Earth’s surface (a local perspective) Map Generalization: the process of simplifying and reducing detail on a map to improve legibility and clarity. Map Projection: a method used to represent the curved surface of the earth on a flat map. Thematic maps ○ Categorical/Qualitative: display qualitative data in lines, shapes, icons, colors, or any other type of symbol the cartographer can imagine ○ quantitative: ○ Choropleth: which displays quantities by coloring the geographic units on the map with different shades, usually with bigger numbers represented by darker colors, and smaller numbers represented by lighter colors. ○ Dot: which display quantities via a number of dots—more dots equals bigger numbers, with each individual dot representing a fixed quantity in the underlying data (e.g., one dot equals 50 people) ○ Proportional Symbol: which display quantities with a common symbol that varies in size to represent the underlying data, with bigger symbols representing bigger numbers ○ Cartogram: unusual looking, hybrid combining proportional-symbol design and choropleth design. Like a choropleth map, there is no symbol other than the geographic unit, but rather than represent a data quantity with a different shade of color, the quantities are represented by proportionally sizing the geographic units themselves. Unit 2: Spatial Patterns:  ○ Clustered: occurs when objects exist in close proximity to one another ○ Regular/Dispersed: occurs when objects exist in approximately equal distances from one another. ○ Random: occurs when objects exist in neither a clustered or dispersed pattern. Region: a generalized area of similarity that is distinctive from other areas. The geographer's spatial equivalent to a historian's period of time is region. ○ Formal-functional: A region defined by a common characteristic or central point/node and the surrounding areas that are connected to it by flows of goods, people, or information. ○ Vernacular-perceptual (mental maps): like pictures in our minds that show how we see places and how we think they’re connected. They’re influenced by our experiences and feelings, and they help us navigate and understand the world around us. Borderlands: regions located along boundaries or borders between different cultural or political entities, often characterized by cultural blending or conflict. Syncretism: the merging or blending of different cultural elements or practices to create new cultural forms or expressions. Shatterbelt: a region that experiences frequent political, cultural, or military conflict due to its location between competing or conflicting powers or interests. Core-periphery Pattern: In a landmark article published in 1965, the geographer Donald Meinig developed a three-part scheme for describing regions in a spatially nuanced way. ○ Core: the central or dominant area with the highest level of influence. ○ Domain: the area surrounding the core that is directly influenced by it. ○ Sphere: the broader region or area indirectly influenced by the core. Friction of Distance: the idea that distance acts as a barrier or obstacle to the movement or interaction of people, goods, or information. Gravity Model: a mathematical model that predicts the interaction between two places based on their size (population or economic) and distance from each other. ○ Less distance between two locations will usually lead to more interaction between them. Distance Decay: the principle that the intensity of interaction or exchange between two places decreases as the distance between them increases. Cultural Diffusion: refers to the spread of people, stuff and ideas across space, over time, of culture from one location to another ○ Hearth: a place where cultural traits, innovations, or ideas originate and from which they spread to other areas.  3 Primary Eurasian Hearths: Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, Yangtze River Valley in China, Indus River Valley in South Asia. ○ Relocation Diffusion: the spread of cultural traits or phenomena through physical movement of people from one place to another. ○ Expansion Diffusion: the spread of cultural traits or phenomena through a population without the physical movement of people, often through hierarchical or contagious processes. ○ Contagious Diffusion: the spread of cultural traits or phenomena from person to person or place to place in a rapid and widespread manner. Spreads ideas to nearby places first ○ Hierarchical Diffusion: exists when the diffusing culture (or the pandemic disease) spreads in what seems like a random manner, hopping and skipping around the map. The culture (or disease) goes first to the most connected places, often the biggest and most important, and then it goes to the next most connected, and so on. ○ Barriers to Diffusion: are factors or obstacles that hinder or slow down the spread of cultural traits or phenomena, such as physical barriers, cultural differences, or government regulations. Site: refers to the physical characteristics and features of a specific location. Situation: refers to its relative location and its connection to other places. Bulk-gaining Industries: During the manufacturing process, they get heavier and heavier, and the final product is thus more expensive to transport than all of the raw materials. ○ Example: Beer Bulk-reducing Industries: an industry in which the final product is lighter or has a smaller volume than the inputs, so the manufacturing process reduces weight or volume. ○ Example: refined sugar Von Thünen’s Isolated State: this model explains how different types of farming or land use are arranged around a central market. It says that activities close to the market are more valuable because it's cheaper to transport goods there. As you move away from the market, different activities become more practical based on transportation costs. ○ Example: dairy farms might be close to the market because their products spoil quickly and need to be delivered fast. Location Rent: refers to the value or price of land based on its location, accessibility, and proximity to economic or social amenities. Principle of Initial Advantage: regions or places with initial advantages, such as natural resources, infrastructure, or favorable geography, are more likely to develop and prosper over time.  Economies of Agglomeration (centripetal forces): the cost savings or benefits that result from firms and industries clustering together in a particular location, such as shared infrastructure, labor pools, or knowledge spillovers. Diseconomies of Agglomeration (centrifugal forces): the disadvantages or costs that result from congestion, competition, or negative externalities associated with clustering of firms and industries in a particular location. Centripetal Forces: forces that unify or bring people, regions, or countries together, such as shared culture, political stability, or economic integration. ○ Examples: downtown, the big city Centrifugal Forces: forces that divide or push people, regions, or countries apart such as ethnic or cultural differences, political instability, or economic disparities. Topological Space: refers to the geometric properties of a space that are preserved under continuous transformation, such as stretching, bending, or twisting, without tearing or cutting. Unit 3: Big History: The origin of our planet and solar system dates back more than four billion years, and that came some ten billion years after the Big Bang kicked off our universal story. As for the origin of our species, that extends back only about 250 thousand years. ○ Most Distinct Characteristic of Humans: symbolic language Out of Africa (Recent African Origin Model): the theory that homo sapien originated in Africa and subsequently migrated and spread across the world around 100,000 years ago, replacing earlier hominin species. Race: a social construct used to categorize people based on physical traits such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features. Haplogroup: A genetic population group sharing a common ancestor traced through specific DNA markers inherited from maternal or paternal lineages. Culture: the shared beliefs, values, customs, traditions, language, and artifacts that characterize a particular group of people. Paleolithic Foragers: Hunter-gatherer societies that obtained food by hunting animals and gathering wild plants and fruits, characterized by nomadic lifestyle and small-scale organizations. (250,000 to 10,000 years ago) ○ Global migrations out of africa ○ megafaunal extinctions and fire-stick farming ○ short in life expectancy ○ tools made from bone, stone, wood, antler, shells, and other naturally available materials ○ painting and other forms of human artwork ○ animistic totemism  ○ subsistence by hunting and gathering wild animals and plants ○ communities connected through kinship and reciprocal, personal exchange ○ long-distance human migrations and seasonal nomadism Neolithic Farmers: Agricultural societies that began to cultivate crops and domesticate animals, leading to settled communities, the development of agriculture, and the emergence of complex societies. (10,000 to 250 years ago) ○ emergence of cities and empires ○ longer and more interwoven networks of trade ○ increasingly anthropogenic landscapes ○ new hierarchies of power built around a specialized division of labor and unequal distribution of wealth ○ larger, denser, more permanent villages ○ accelerated population growth ○ Neolithic agricultural revolutions Agricultural Revolution: the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture as the primary means of subsistence, leading to the domestication of plants and animals, sedentary lifestyles, and the development of complex societies. Domestication: the process by which plants and animals are selectively bred and controlled by humans for specific traits or purposes, leading to their adaptation to human environment and reliance on human care. Humans also domesticated themselves. Affluent Foragers: Hunter-gatherer societies characterized by a relatively high level of food availability and material wealth due to abundant natural resources and efficient resource management. Horticulture: small-scale cultivation of plants for subsistence, typically using simple tools and techniques, practiced by early agricultural societies before the development of intensive farming methods. Nomadic Pastoralism: a traditional way of life based on the seasonal movement of livestock herds in search of grazing lands, practiced by pastoralist societies. Transhumance: a form of pastoralism involving the seasonal movement of livestock between fixed summer and winter pastures, typically practiced in mountainous regions. Shifting Cultivation (swidden): an agricultural practice involving the rotation of fields for cultivation and fallow periods to allow natural regeneration of soil fertility, commonly practiced in tropical regions. Unit 4: Agrarian Civilization: a society that relies primarily on agriculture for its economic and social structure, with farming as the dominant livelihood and source of sustenance.  ○ According to David Christian the agrarian era had many trends: Larger, denser, more permanent villages Accelerated population growth New hierarchies of power built around a specialized division of labor and unequal distribution of wealth Systems of patriarchy that saw men claim a disproportionate share of the power, especially beyond the household and the village ○ grains such as wheat and barley = Fertile Crescent, 8000 BCE ○ Rice and other grains = southern and northern China, 7000 BCE ○ Root crops such as yams and taro = west africa and papua new guinea, 8000 to 7000 BCE ○ Squash (and later maize, beans, and potatoes) = mesoamerica and andean south america, 7000 to 3000 BCE ○ Cattle = saharan africa, 9000 to 8000 BCE ○ Secondary products revolution (eg. milk, wool) = Afro-Eurasia, 4000 BCE Irrigation: the artificial application of water to land to assist in the production of crops, typically through channels, canals, or other systems to control the flow and distribution of water. Which allowed us to inhabit arid regions in larger numbers Secondary Products Revolution: refers to all of the economic value that domesticated animals provide beyond their flesh that we consume after slaughter. ○ Example: large draft animals (horses, cattle, etc.) not only pulled our heavy plows through heavy soil, but they carried us and our products across long distances. Mixed Farming: a farming system that involves the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock on the same farm, allowing for complementary interactions and diversified sources of income. Three Agricultural Hearths (Harlan’s Centers): the three primary regions where agriculture is believed to have independently originated and spread: the fertile crescent, the yangtze river valley in china, and mesoamerica in central america. Starchy Staples: basic food crops that serve as dietary staples and provide a significant portion of caloric intake, such as rice, wheat, maize, or potatoes. Fertile Crescent: a region in the middle east known for its fertile soil and early development of agriculture, considered one of the cradles of civilization due to its role in the origins of agriculture and settled societies. Mediterranean Horticulture: a farming system practiced in regions with a mediterranean climate, characterized by the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and other crops suited to the warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters of the mediterranean region.  Wet Rice Farming (sawah, padi): a method of rice (padi) cultivation that involves flooding sawah fields with water to create ideal growing conditions of rice plants, commonly practiced in regions with abundant rainfall or access to irrigation water. Columbian Exchange: the widespread exchange of plants, animals, diseases, technologies, and cultures between the old world (Europe, africa, and asia) following the voyages of Christopher Columbus in the late 15th century. ○ Also included the exchange of diseases (e.g., measles, smallpox, cholera) Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations: a theory suggesting that future global conflicts will be primarily based on cultural and civilizational differences rather than ideological or economic factors. Unit 5: Living Languages and Language Families (Indo-European languages): living languages are languages that are still used today. Language Families is a group of languages that are related and believed to have descended from a common ancestral language, such as the Indo-European language family which includes languages like English, Spanish, Hindi, and Russian. ○ Lingua Franca: a language used to facilitate communication and trade between peoples who speak different first languages. Example: the Roman Empire carried Latin around the Mediterranean and the European subcontinent Often the language of a more powerful group. ○ Dialects: varieties of a language spoken by a particular group of people, characterized by differences in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. Example: American english; varieties of English spoken in different regions of the USA, such as southern, new england, or midwestern dialects. ○ Pidgins: simplified languages that develop as a means of communication between speakers of different native languages, often used in trade or contact situations Example: Hawaiian Pidgin; a simplified language that emerged in Hawaii as a means of communication between Native Hawaiians, immigrants, and plantation workers from different linguistic backgrounds. ○ Creole Languages: Stable, fully developed languages that emerge from the blending of multiple languages, often spoken as a native language by a community. Example: Haitian Creole; a stable, fully developed language spoken in Haiti, emerged from the blending of French, African languages, and indigenous languages during the colonial period.  World Religions: major religious traditions practiced by large numbers of people around the world, such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Judaism. ○ Universalizing Faiths: religions that seek to appeal to all people and actively proselytize, such as Christianity and Islam. ○ Local-National Ethnic Faiths: religions closely tied to specific ethnic or cultural groups and often practiced primarily within those communities, such as Shintoism in Japan or Judaism among the Jewish communities. ○ Western/Abrahamic Religions: religions that originated in the middle east and are associated with monotheistic tradition, including Judaism, christianity, and Islam. They derive from the same historical-geographical hearth around Mesopotamia and share a common heritage rooted in the story of Abraham. ○ Non-Western Religions: religions originating outside of the western cultural sphere, such as hinduism, buddhism, and indigenous belief systems. ○ Animism: belief in spiritual beings or forces within natural elements and phenomena, often associated with indigenous or traditional religions. these gods and spirits can exist not just in human form but in animal form or even animated form (i.e., a talking rock or tree), ○ Secularism: the principle of separation of religion from government and public affairs, advocating for neutrality and freedom of belief. For many secular individuals, traditional religion remains an important cultural identifier and perhaps also an important part of a world view built both on religious faith and modern reason. The Orient / East Asia: ​a term historically used to refer to the region of East Asia, including countries such as China, Japan, Korea, and neighboring areas. The region is home to a diverse range of natural landscapes, and as one of the most densely populated regions of the world, with more than 1.6 billion residents (more than 20 percent of the total world population). ○ Han China: refers to the period in Chinese history when the Han Dynasty ruled, as well as the ethnic majority group in China, the Han people. ○ China Proper: the historical core region of China, encompassing areas where Han Chinese culture and language predominate. ○ North China Plain: a large alluvial plain in northern China, known for its fertile soil and intensive agriculture. ○ The Loess Plateau: a region in northern China characterized by thick deposits of wind-blown sediment called loess, known for its distinctive landscape and agriculture.  ○ Silk Roads: an ancient trade route connecting east asia with the mediterranean world, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures. ○ The Gansu Corridor: a narrow passage through the mountains in northwestern China, part of the silk roads, and an important historical route for trade and cultural exchange. ○ Confucianism: a philosophical and ethical system based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasizing moral virtues, social harmony, and filial piety. It is famous for its emphasis on an orderly, hierarchical style of governance modeled after the patriarchal extended family. Rather than promote potentially disruptive individualism, or a strict punitive enforcement of rules, Confucianism is a philosophy of virtuous rule built on ritualized deference to authorities who are expected to reciprocate by ruling on behalf of collective social harmony, rather than their own selfish interest. ○ Taoism: a philosophical and religious tradition originating in ancient China, emphasizing harmony with the natural world, simplicity, and spontaneity. ○ Mandarin (Putonghua) and the Sino-Tibetan language family: Mandarin (Putonghua) is the standard spoken form of the chinese language, based on the beijing dialect, and most widely spoken language in china. It is also part of the Sino-Tibetan Language Family that includes many languages spoken in East Asia and Southeast Asia. ○ Sinographic Writing: a system of writing characters used in many East Asian languages including Chinese, Japanese, and Korean, based on logograms representing words or concepts. Sinographic writing is ideographic, with symbols representing concepts rather than sounds. South Asia: encompassing countries such as India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri Lanka. ○ Vedic Civilization: an ancient civilization that emerged in the Indian subcontinent during the vedic period (1500-500 BCE), characterized by the composition of the Vedas, sacred texts of Hinduism, and the development of early Indo-Aryan culture. ○ Indo-Gangetic Plain: a fertile alluvial plain in south Asia, formed by the sediment deposited by the Indus and Ganges rivers, known for its agricultural productivity and historical significance. ○ Caste System: a social hierarchy based on hereditary social classes, or castes, traditionally found in South Asian societies, particularly in Hinduism, dividing people into groups with specific roles and status.  ○ Hinduism: the predominant religious and cultural tradition of the Indian subcontinent, characterized by a diverse range of beliefs, practices, and rituals, including belief of reincarnation and karma. ○ Buddhism: a major world religion and philosophical tradition originating in ancient India, founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), emphasizing the pursuit of enlightenment and the alleviation of suffering. dominant throughout much of Southeast Asia significant part of the religious-ideological mix of East Asia. Like Christianity and Islam, global Buddhism is practiced in many different ways, so tightly woven the religious identity is into the national/ethnic group’s broader identity ○ Hindustani: a language continuum comprising Hindi and Urdu, spoken primarily in the Indian subcontinent, with significant mutual intelligibility between the two varieties. ○ Dravidian languages: a language family spoken predominantly in South India and parts of sri lanka, including languages like tamil, telugu, kannada, and malayalam. ○ Partition: the division or separation of a country or region into separate political entities, often referring to the partition of British India into the independent nations of India and Pakistan in 1947. Central Asia / Turkestan / Altaic languages: Central Asia is a region in the heart of Asia, encompassing countries such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan, known for its diverse cultures, history, and geography. Turkestan is an older term used to refer to central asia, particularly the areas inhabited by turkic-speaking peoples. Altaic Languages are a proposed language family that includes Turkic, Monogolic, and Tungusic Languages spoken in Central Asia, Siberia, and parts of East asia. Southeast Asia as shatterbelt / Austronesian, Austroasiatic, and Tai-Kadai languages: Southeast Asia is considered a shatterbelt due to its geopolitical significance and historical role as a zone of cultural, political, and economic competition and conflict. It has been influenced by various external powers and has experienced tensions arising from competing interests and rivalries among regional and global actors. Austronesian, Austroasiatic, and Tai-Kadai are language families spoken in Southeast Asia and neighboring regions, including languages like Malay, Tagalog, Khmer, Vietnamese, and Thai. Sub Saharan Africa as shatterbelt / Bantu languages / Francophone and Anglophone Africa: Sub-Saharan Africa is considered a shatterbelt due to its geopolitical significance and historical role as a zone of cultural, political, and economic competition and conflict. It has been influenced by various external powers and has experienced tensions arising from competing interests and  rivalries among regional and global actors. Bantu Languages are a large language family spoken by Bantu peoples across much of Sub-Saharan Africa, including languages like Swahili, Zulu, and Xhosa. Francophone and Anglophone Africa are regions of Africa where French and English are the predominant languages of administration, education, and communication, respectively. America as shatterbelt / pre-Columbian America: America, both north and south, can be considered a shatterbelt due to its geopolitical significance and historical role as a zone of cultural, political, and economic competition and conflict. It has been influenced by various external powers and has experienced tensions arising from competing interests and rivalries among regional and global actors. Pre-Columbian America refers to the period of history in the Americas before the arrival of Christopher Columbus and European colonization, emphasis on civilizations that were found across America before Columbus like Mayan, Aztec, and Inca. Unit 6: Darjeeling: a town in the Indian state of West Bengal, known for its scenic beauty, tea plantations, and as a popular tourist destination. ○ At the foot of the towering Himalayas ○ “Queen of Hills” Hill Station: were known for being retreats for the British during the colonial era in India. The British established these hill stations to escape the heat and humidity of the Indian plains, especially during the summer months. Tea: A type of tea, known for its unique flavor and aroma, often considered one of the finest teas in the world. Several dozen estates, covering more than 17 thousand hectares of land on the slopes surrounding Darjeeling, produce about 10 million kilograms of tea each year. “Champagne of Teas” Place (center of meaning, as well as a dynamic process): a location that holds significance and meaning to individuals or groups, shaped by physical characteristics, cultural attributes, and social interactions. It is also a dynamic process, constantly evolving through human activities and perceptions. Toponym: the name of a place or location, derived from its geographical or cultural features, often reflecting its history, identity, or significance. Superorganic Culture: the concept that culture exists as a distinct entity or force beyond individual human actions, with its own dynamics and evolutionary processes.  Social Construction Culture: the perspective that culture is created and maintained through social interactions, shaped by shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices of a society. ○ Culture Wars: struggles or conflicts between different cultural groups or ideologies, often involving debates over values, beliefs, and societal norms. ○ Countercultures: subcultures that emerge as a reaction against dominant cultural norms and values, representing alternative lifestyles or ideologies. ○ Subcultures: distinctive groups within a larger culture, sharing common interests, behaviors, or beliefs that differentiate them from the mainstream culture. ○ Berkeley School: refers to a group of geographers associated with the University of California, Berkeley, known for their contributions to cultural geography, emphasizing the role of culture in shaping landscapes and human interactions with the environment. ○ New Cultural Geography: a contemporary approach to cultural geography that focuses on the dynamic and complex relationships between culture, space, and place, exploring issues of identity, power, and representation. Utopia: an imagined or ideal place or society Dystopia: the opposite of a utopia, the bible's “hell” is an accurate representation Identikit Places: a place that's not recognizable by any unique landmarks. ○ Example: Mcdonalds, they look just about the same everywhere, making it hard to pinpoint where a certain Mcdonalds is located just based on looks. ○ Often associated with urban sprawl or mass production. Placelessness: the loss of identity to a place due to concepts like homogenization, globalization, or the erosion of local culture and heritage. Cultural Landscape: how humans' actions leave a visible mark on the physical landscape. Meinig’s Ten Versions of the Same Scene: International Modernism (Le Corbusier): A design and architectural movement that emerged in the early 20th century characterized by a focus on functionalism, simplicity, and the use of modern materials and technology, as exemplified by the work of architect Le Corbusier. ○ Corbu got famous in the 1920s for wanting to change Paris with tall buildings. Later, he suggested spreading out tall buildings and creating open spaces to ease city congestion. Romanticism: an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, emphasizing emotion,  imagination, nature, and individualism in reaction to the rationalism of the enlightenment. ○ Neoclassical (Arcadian Classicism and City Beautiful): Neoclassical Architecture and urban planning styles inspired by classical greek and roman aesthetics, characterized by symmetry, order, and proportion. Arcadian Classicism refers to the idealized depiction of rural landscapes, while City Beautiful refers to urban planning movements focused on beautifying cities through monumental architecture and landscaped parks. The “neo” in neoclassical suggests it is a style that is reacting to something—something that has come between the old and the new. ○ Haussmann’s Paris: refers to the urban renewal and modernization projects undertaken in Paris by Georges-Eugene Haussmann during the mid-19th century, involving the construction of wide boulevards, parks, and public buildings. ○ Hitler/Speer’s Berlin: refers to the architectural and urban planning initiatives carried out in Berlin under the direction of Adolf Hitler and his architect, Albert Speer, during the Nazi regime, aiming to transform the city into a grandiose capital of the Third Reich. Postmodernism: a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 20th century, characterized by skepticism towards grand narratives, an emphasis on pluralism, and the rejection of traditional conventions and hierarchies in art, literature, and culture. ○ Known for its “fondness for historical illusion” in a romantic attempt to reconnect us with the past and a non-generic sense of place. Hyperreality: a condition in which simulations or representations of reality become more real or significant than the reality they depict, blurring the boundaries between the real and the simulated. Simulacra: copies or representation of something that has no original, often leading to the creation of artificial or simulated environments that replace authentic experiences. Munich, Oktoberfest, the Hofbräuhaus, and the Königsplatz: Munich is a city in Germany known for its rich history, culture, and beer tradition. It's famous for landmarks like the Hofbräuhaus and Oktoberfest. Oktoberfest is an annual beer festival held in Munich, Germany, known for its lively atmosphere, traditional Bavarian food and beer, and amusement rides. Hofbräuhaus is a historic beer hall located in the center of Munich, known for its traditional Bavarian atmosphere, beer, and food. It's a symbol of Munich's beer and brewing tradition, as well as Bavarian culture. Königsplatz is a public square in Munich, known for  its neoclassical architecture and historical significance. It's one of several landmarks in Munich associated with the city's royal heritage and history. MIDTERM Unit 7: Latin and Western Indo-European Languages (Romance, Germanic, Slavic, and more): these refer to language families originating from Latin and the Indo-European language group, including Romance languages (like French, Spanish, Italian), Germanic languages (like English, German, Dutch), Slavic languages (like Russian, Polish, Czech), and others. Classical Greco-Roman Europe: refers to the civilization and culture of ancient Greece and Rome, which had significant influence on Western civilization, including politics, philosophy, art, and architecture. Prophetic Abrahamic Religions: this includes religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which trace their origins back to the biblical figure Abraham and include prophets like Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. Christendom: historically, this term refers to the worldwide community of Christians and the territories under Christian rule, particularly during medieval times. Modern Western Civilization: Secular, Liberal, Progressive, Technological: this describes the contemporary societal norms and values in many Western countries, characterized by; ○ a separation of church and state (secularism) ○ Emphasis on individual rights and freedoms (liberalism) ○ Support for social progress and reform (progressivism) ○ Reliance on advanced technology (technological) EU: The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of European countries, aiming to promote economic and political cooperation among its member states. UEFA: Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) is the governing body for football (soccer) in Europe. Colonialism and its Legacies: refers to the practice of acquiring and controlling territories outside one’s own borders for economic, political, and cultural gain. Its legacies include lasting effects on the colonized societies, such as social hierarchies, economic disparities, and cultural assimilation or suppression. ○ Spanish Empire: was deeply connected to colonialism because it conquered and controlled large parts of the Americas. Through exploration and conquest, Spain established colonies, exploiting resources and labor.  This led to economic wealth for Spain but hardship for indigenous peoples. Spanish culture, language, and religion also influenced the regions it colonized, leaving a lasting impact that continues to shape the Americas today. ○ British Empire: colonized many regions worldwide. Britain claimed territories across Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Oceania British rule imposed governance, often benefiting Britain, and disrupted local societies. The empire exploited resources and labor, enriching Britain but often impoverishing colonies. British culture, language, and institutions left lasting marks on colonized regions, impacting their development. ○ The Scramble for Africa: refers to the rapid colonization and partitioning of Africa by European powers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, leading to widespread exploitation of African resources and the imposition of European control over indigenous populations. ○ Decolonization: the process by which colonies gained independence from colonial rule. ○ Neocolonialism: refers to the lasting impact recently liberated countries that were colonized, affecting economic, political, or cultural influence of the country. Cold War: First, Second, and Third Worlds: The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tensions between the Soviet Union and its allies (Eastern Bloc) and the USA and its allies (Western Bloc) following World War II. The First World referred to the capitalist, democratic countries on the US side (e.g., Western Europe, Japan). The Second World referred to the communist states on the Soviet Union's side. (e.g., Eastern Europe, China). The Third World referred to neutral countries not picking sides. Global Capitalism: refers to an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, free market competition, and profit maximization on a global scale. Communism: a socio-economic system advocating for common ownership of the means of production, the absence of social classes, and the eventual establishment of a classless society. NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organization is a political and military alliance of democratic countries primarily in North America and Europe, formed for collective defense against potential threats.  The OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development is an international organization promoting economic development and cooperation among its member countries, primarily in areas such as trade, taxation, and social policies. Rostow’s Industrial Take-Off Theory: a theory that suggest economic development occurs in stages, with societies progressing from traditional to modern economies through stages like “take-off” into sustained economic growth. Wallerstein’s World System: a theory that views the world economy as a complex system characterized by unequal economic and political relationships between core (inner), semi-peripheral (middle ground), and peripheral regions (outer area). Globalization: refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of economies, cultures, and societies worldwide, facilitated by advancements in technology, communication, and transportation. NGOs: Non-Governmental Organization are non-profit organizations independent of government control, often involved in humanitarian work. environmental, or social causes. TNCs: Transnational Corporations are large companies that operate in multiple countries, with production, marketing, and other activities spanning national borders. Supranational Organizations: entities like the European Union that have authority above the level of individual countries, often in areas like trade, law, or security. Glocalization: the blending of global and local influences, where global products or ideas are adapted to fit local contexts or preferences, or vice versa. Neoliberalism: an economic and political ideology, emphasizing free-market capitalism, limited government intervention, deregulation, and privatization Austerity: refers to government policies aimed at reducing public services and social welfare programs. Washington Consensus: refers to a set of neoliberal economic policies promoted by international financial institutions like the IMF and World Bank, emphasizing market-oriented reforms, privatization, and trade liberalization. Social Democracy: a political ideology advocating for mixed economy with a balance of free-market capitalism and government intervention to promote social justice, equality, and welfare programs Keynesianism: an economic theory advocating for government intervention in the economy, particularly through fiscal policy (government spending and taxation), to manage demand and stabilize economic fluctuations.  Western Europe: Influenced by Roman and Germanic civilization, developed urbanization, trade, and nation-states. It is predominantly Christian, embracing Catholicism and Protestantism. It champions democracy, capitalism, and liberal values, with the EU and NATO memberships for countries like France, Germany, and the UK. Economically advanced, with high living standards and diverse cultural heritage. Eastern Europe: Shaped by Byzantine, Slavic, and Ottoman civilizations, has diverse cultural and political structures. Orthodoxy prevails, with significant Catholic and Muslim populations. It has a varied political landscape, transitioning from communism to democracy after the Soviet Union's fall, though some struggle with corruption and authoritarianism. Economic challenges followed communism's collapse. Rich cultural traditions bear influences from empires like the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian. Essentialization: the process of simplifying or reducing complex identities or cultures to essential or stereotypical traits. Orientalism: a concept that refers to the Western study, depiction, and the perception of the “Orient” (primarily the middle east and Asia) as exotic, primitive, and inferior, often serving colonial or imperialist interests. Dar al-Islam: refers to the “abode of Islam,” regions where Islam is the dominant religion and where Islamic law prevails. Muhammad: the central figure of Islam, regarded as the last prophet. Mecca: the holiest city in Islam, where the Kaaba is located Koran: the holy book of Islam, believed to be the word of God as revealed to Muhammad. Five Pillars: the five basic acts of worship that are central to a Muslim’s faith and practice Islamism: refers to political movements advocating for the implementation of Islamic principles in government and society. Unit 8: Global North-South Divide: refers to the economic and developmental disparity between the affluent, industrialized countries of the “Global North” (mostly located in North America, Europe, and parts of Asia) and the less developed countries of the “Global South” (mostly located in Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia). MDCs: More Developed Countries (MDCs), refers to affluent, industrialized countries with high levels of economic development, advanced technology, and strong infrastructure. These countries are often characterized by high standards of living and are usually found in the Global North. LDCs: Less Developed Countries (LDCs), refers to countries with low levels of economic development, often characterized by poverty, inadequate  infrastructure, and limited access to education and healthcare. Typically found in the Global South. Development: the process of improving the economic, social, and political well-being of a society, often measured by indicators such as economic growth, education, healthcare, and infrastructure. Human Development Index (GNI, life expectancy, years of schooling): a composite index that measures a country's level of human development based on indicators such as gross national income (GNI) per capita, life expectancy, and years of schooling. Keiretsu: a form of Japanese business organization consisting of a network of companies with interlocking relationships and shareholdings, often centered around a major bank or corporation. Chaebol: similar to keiretsu but specific to South Korea, refers to large, family-controlled conglomerates that dominate the country’s economy, with interconnected relationships between different subsidiaries and sectors. Emerging Markets: refers to countries with rapidly growing economies and increasing industrialization, often characterized by transitioning from low-income to middle-income status. These markets offer investment opportunities but may also face challenges such as political instability and economic volatility. BRICS: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, a group of major emerging economies with significant influence on regional and global affairs. Asian Tigers and Cubs: refers to the rapidly industrializing economies of East Asia, including countries such as Singapore (the “tigers”), and their neighboring countries, such as the Philippines (the “Cubs”). Rise of the West: refers to the historical process of Western Europe and later North America gaining economic, political, and cultural dominance over other regions of the world, particularly during the colonial era and the Industrial Revolution. Geographic Determinism: a theory that physical geography, including factors such as climate, topography, and resources, shapes the development and behavior of societies. Kemalism: refers to the ideology, which emphasizes secularism, nationalism, and modernization. Dependency: refers to the economic relationships between developed and developing countries, where the latter are reliant on the former for capital technology, and markets, often leading to unequal power dynamics and economic exploitation. Realpolitik: a political approach that prioritizes practical and strategic consideration over ideological or moral principles, often characterized by a focus on power and national interests in foreign policy.  Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): eight international development goals established by the United Nations in 2000, aiming to address poverty, education, gender equality, healthcare, and environmental sustainability by 2015. The Global Goals for Sustainable Development (SDGs): set of 17 global goals adopted by the United Nations in 2015 after MDGs, aiming to address poverty, inequality, climate change, environmentally degradation, peace, and justice by 2030. Unit 9: The Modern World: refers to the era of significant development in all aspects of society, typically associated with globalization, industrialization, and advances in science and technology. Primary Economic Sector: all activities exploiting natural resources: agriculture, forestry, fishing, mining, and energy production Secondary Economic Sector: consists of processing, manufacturing, and construction companies and produces goods from natural products with the primary sector. Tertiary Economic Sector: service sector: retail, transportation, finance, healthcare, education, and hospitality. ○ Global Coffee Crisis: a period of declined coffee prices (late 20th - early 21st century), caused by oversupply, fluctuating demand, and market speculation. Disproportionately affected coffee-producing countries, particularly in Latin America and Africa. ○ Declining International Terms of Trade for Primary Products: a situation where the prices of primary products (agricultural commodities, minerals, energy resources) decline relative to the prices of manufactured goods and services, leading to decreased purchasing power for countries reliant on exporting primary products. ○ Tertiarization: economic development characterized by the increasing dominance of the service sector (tertiary) over the primary and secondary sectors. ○ Quaternary Sectors: knowledge-based activities that focus on research, development, info tech, and other high-level services. Industrial Revolution: the period of rapid technological and economic change that began in Britain in the late 18th century and spread around the world. Characterized by the transition from agrarian economies to industrialized economies. Labor, Capital, Markets, and Factories: key components of industrialization and economic development. Labor (workforce), capital (money and resources used for investment), markets (where goods and services are exchanged), factories (facilities where goods are produced, using machinery and labor)  The Thirty-year Crisis: the period of global economic and political instability because of World War I. Characterized by economic depression, social upheaval, rise of totalitarian regimes, culminating in World War II. Fordism: Henry Ford, refers to a system of mass production and consumption based on standardized, assembly-line production methods. Assembly-line Mass Production: manufacturing process that increases efficiency and production of a product using a series of standardized parts or components. Post-Fordism: the economic and social changes emerging in advancing capitalist societies after the decline of fordism. Characterized by increased flexibility, diversity, and customization in production methods, rise of service-based economies, and the use of info tech. Just-in-time Supply Chains: production strategy where goods are produced or delivered only as they are needed, minimizing inventory costs and waste, and requiring close coordination between suppliers and manufacturers. A New International Division of Labor (“Chimerica”): economic relationship between China and the US, where China is a major manufacturing center for goods consumed in the US, creating a global division of labor where production is outsourced to countries with lower labor costs. Connecting Technologies and Networks: facilitate global connectivity and exchange, including transportation networks, telecommunications, the internet, and global supply chains. ○ Bulk Commodities: raw materials/goods that are traded in large quantities, often without significant differentiation between individual units, such as oil, coal, grain, and minerals. ○ Standardized Multimodal Shipping Containers: used in intermodal freight transport, allowing goods to be efficiently transported by multiple modes of transportations (e.g., ships, trains, trucks) ○ No need to be unpacked/repacked ○ reduces cost and improves efficiency in global trade. Unit 10: World Cities: major urban centers that play a significant role in global economic, political, and cultural networks. Characterized by their size, economic importance, global influence in areas such as finance, commerce, culture, and innovation. Socially Constructed Space: the idea that space/place are not simply physical/natural entities but are shaped by human perceptions, meanings, and interactions. ○ It exists because humans agree that it exists. Territory: a defined geographical area under the control of a specific group.  Human Territoriality: behaviors that individuals used to mark and defend the social resources and land who they feel ownership over. The Modern National State: involves a centralized government that can claim and exercise authority over a distinctive territory and it also involves a certain degree of linguistic and cultural homogeneity. Sovereignty: the supreme authority and power of a state to govern itself and control its own affairs without interference from external actors. (basically individuality of states) ○ Right to make laws ○ Enforce rules ○ Manages resources within its territory. Nations and Nationalism (“imagined communities” and “invented traditions”): Nations refers to groups of people who share a common identity, culture, history, and often language or ethnicity. Nationalism, the ideology that promotes loyalty and devotion to one's nation. The concept of “imagined communities” and “invented traditions” highlight the idea that nations are socially constructed entities, created through shared myths, symbols, and rituals rather than inherent or objective characteristics. Ethnicity: shared cultural, linguistic, religious, or ancestral characteristics that distinguish one group of people from another. Nation-state Ideal: the concept of a political entity in which the boundaries of the state coincide with the boundaries of a single nation, where the state represents the interests and identity of that nation. Irredentism: where one state seeks to reclaim territory it considers rightfully belonging to it due to historical, ethnic, or cultural connections. Stateless Nations: ethnic/cultural groups that do not have their own independent state or sovereign territory, often existing with the borders of other states. ○ Example: The palestinian people are primarily Arabs living in the territories of the West Bank, Gaza Strip, etc. Palestinians have sought to establish an independent state of Palestine, but their effects have been hindered by the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Multiethnic States: states/countries with populations consisting of multiple ethnic groups, each with its own distinct cultural, linguistic, or religious identity. ○ Example: Malaysia is home to a diverse population comprising various ethnic groups, including malays, chinese, indians, and indigenous peoples, making it a multiethnic state. Multinational States: refers to states with multiple nations or national groups Decolonization: when colonized territories gain independence from colonial rule, often through political, social, and economic struggles and movements.  Devolution: transfer of power/authority from a central government to regional/local governments within a state, often to accommodate the political, cultural, or ethnic diversity of the population. Multilevel Governance: system of governance in which authority and decision-making powers are shared among multiple levels of government, including local, regional, national, and supranational entities. Federalism: a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units, such as states or provinces, each with its own sphere of jurisdiction and autonomy Supranationalism: form of international cooperation/integration in which sovereign states voluntarily pool their authority and sovereignty to achieve common goals or address shared challenges. Unit 11: Malthus and Neo-Malthusians: Thomas Malthus was an economist who proposed a thing called Neo-Malthusians that population growth would eventually outstrip the Earth’s ability to provide enough resources, leading to widespread famine and poverty. Cornucopians: those who believe that technological innovation and human ingenuity will continually create new resources, thereby mitigating any scarcity issues posed by population growth. Undernourishment populations: refers to the condition of not receiving adequate nutrition to maintain good health and wellbeing Overweight populations: refers to a population where a significant portion of individuals have a body weight exceeding what is considered healthy, often due to overconsumption of calories relative to energy expenditure. Modern Agricultural Commodities: refers to crops and livestock produced on a large scale using modern farming techniques and technologies, often for commercial purposes. HYVs: high yielding varieties of crops, typically developed through scientific breeding programs, which produce significantly higher yields compared to traditional varieties. The Green Revolution: Refers to a period of significant technological advancements in agriculture during the mid-20th century, characterized by the widespread adoption of HYVs, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, leading to dramatic increases in agricultural productivity. GMOs: genetically modified organisms: organisms whose genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally through mating or natural recombination. GMOs are often used in agriculture to confer traits such as resistance to pests, diseases, or herbicides, or to enhance nutritional value.  Slow Food: a movement that promotes locally produced, high-quality food, and traditional cooking methods as an alternative to fast food and industrialized agriculture. It emphasizes the importance of preserving cultural food traditions and supporting small-scale farmers. Biodiversity: the variety of life forms on earth, including different species, genetic diversity within species, and diversity of ecosystems. Species Shifting: refers to the movement or migration of species from one geographical area to another in response to environmental changes, such as climate change. CITES: convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora, an international treaty aimed at regulating and monitoring the international trade of endangered and threatened species to ensure their survival. Anthropogenic: refers to processes, activities, or phenomena that are derived from human activities or influence. Adaptation: refers to actions taken to adjust to or cope with the impacts of climate change or other environmental changes. Mitigation: refers to actions taken to reduce or prevent the causes of climate change or other environmental problems, such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Modification: refers to alterations or changes made to the environment, which may or may not have negative impacts. Degradation: refers to the decline or deterioration of the quality of the environment, often resulting in negative impacts on ecosystems and human well-being. Political Ecology: an interdisciplinary field that examines the political, economic, and social factors that influence the environmental policies, resource management practices, and distribution of environmental benefits and burdens. Sustainable Development: development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, balancing economic, social, and environmental considerations. Triple Bottom Line: an accounting framework that evaluates an organization's performance based on three factors: economic, social, and environmental. ESG: environmental, social, and governance criteria used by investors and stakeholders to evaluate the sustainability and ethical impact of a company's operations and practices.  Ecological Footprint: a measure of the human impact on the environment, representing the amount of biologically productive land and water required to sustainably support a given population's consumption and waste production. The Anthropocene: a proposed geological epoch characterized by significant human influence on the earth's geology and ecosystems, particularly through activities such as industrialization, urbanization, and resource extraction. I=PAT: the IPAT equation is a formula used to estimate the environmental impact of human activities, where impact = population x affluence (measured as per capita consumption) x technology (measured as environmental impact per unit of consumption) Decoupling: refers to the process of separating economic growth from environmental degradation, achieving economic prosperity without increasing resource consumption or environmental impacts. Montreal Protocol: an international treaty aimed at phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) The Paris Agreement: an international treaty under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aimed at limiting global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius, through voluntary emission reduction commitments by participating countries. Air Pollution: the presence of harmful or excessive quantities of substances in the air, such as pollutants from vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and the burning of fossil fuels, which can have detrimental effects on human health and the environment. The U.S. Clean Air Act of 1970: a landmark piece of legislation in the US aimed at reducing air pollution and improving air quality standards through regulatory measures and pollution control technologies. Fossil Fuels: carbon-based fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals, which release carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses when burned. Greenhouse Gasses: gasses that trap heat in the earth’s atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, contributing to the greenhouse effect and global warming. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change): a scientific body established by the United NAtions to assess the scientific evidence and risks associated with climate change, and to provide policymakers with recommendations for mitigation and adaptation strategies.  Anthropogenic Global Warming: the increase in average global temperatures attributed to human activities, particularly the emission of greenhouse gasses from the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. Unit 12: Today’s Global Ecumene: South Asia, East Asia, Euro-Mediterranean, Sub-Saharan Africa. ○ South Asia: 2 billion people. India (soon to be the most populated country). Grows faster than the world average, at 1.5% per year. Mostly rural, most populations reside in cities. ○ East Asia: 1.6 billion people. China (currently world's most populated country). Not significantly growing anymore, close to 0% per year. Mostly urbanized, ⅔ of the population live in cities. ○ Euro-Mediterranean: 1.3 billion people. Not home to any single country. Russia being the largest at 150 million, but population shrinking. Population is growing in the African side, Morocco, Egypt, around the same growth rate as east asia. Immigration is keeping the population stable. ○ Sub-Saharan Africa: 1 billion people. Growth rate 2.5% per year. Emigration (mostly to Europe). Urbanization is on the rise, but Africa is still considered more rural than urban. ○ 9 billion by 2050: this is the most conservative projections envisioned for the human population The Modern Demographic Transition: ○ Stage 1 is the before picture. Both birth rates and death rates are high (around 40 per thousand each year), and as a result, the population total does not change much year to year. ○ Stage 2: advances in medicine and sanitation reduce deaths from communicable diseases. High birth rates and falling death rates cause rapid population growth. ○ Stage 3: birth rates decline due to cultural, economic, and technological changes, while deaths from degenerative diseases keep the crude death rate around 10 per 1,000. ○ Stage 4 marks the completion, with birth and death rates stabilizing around 10 per 1,000, leading to zero population growth. The total population is much higher than in Stage 1 due to growth during Stages 2 and 3. Common in European and East Asian countries. Crude Birth and Death Rates: Crude birth rate is the number of births per 1,000 individuals in a population over a specified period. Crude death rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 individuals in a population over a specified period.  ○ Germany exemplifies a Stage 4 country with a crude birth rate (CBR) of 10 and a crude death rate (CDR) of 12, resulting in a slight population decline of -0.2% annually. ○ Egypt, in Stage 3, has a birth rate of 21 per 1,000, a death rate of 7 per 1,000, and a 1.4% annual growth rate, doubling the population in about 50 years. ○ Democratic Republic of the Congo has a birth rate of 42 per 1,000 and a death rate of 10 per 1,000, leading to a 3.2% annual growth rate, doubling the population in about 22 years. Natural Increase: the difference between the number of births and the number of deaths in a population over a certain period, usually expressed as a percentage. Doubling Time: the amount of time it takes for a population to double in size, based on its current growth rate. Epidemiological Transition: a theory that describes the changing patterns of health and disease in populations as they undergo economic development. It involves a shift from high mortality due to infectious diseases to higher mortality from chronic diseases. ○ Life Expectancy: Life expectancy is the average number of years a person can expect to live, typically at birth, based on current mortality rates. ○ Communicable Disease: illnesses caused by infectious agents that can be transmitted from person to person. ○ Pandemics: outbreaks of infectious disease that spread across a large region, often globally. ○ Degenerative Disease: chronic conditions characterized by the progressive deterioration of the structure or function of organs or tissues. ○ Non-Communicable Disease: medical conditions not caused by infectious agents and typically result from genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. Fertility Transition: refers to the shift from high fertility rates to low fertility rates in a population, usually associated with socioeconomic development. ○ Total Fertility Rate: The total fertility rate (TFR) indicates population trends: above two means growth, below two means decline. ○ The Small-Family Norm: a cultural or societal expectation that families will have a small number of children, often as a result of economic and social factors. Occurs during stage 3 ○ Fertility Control: the intentional regulation of fertility through contraception, family planning, and other means.  ○ Pro-Natalist Policies: government initiatives designed to encourage higher fertility rates and population growth, often through incentives such as financial support for families with children. Age-Sex Population Pyramids: graphical representations of the age and sex distribution of a population, typically displayed as a bar chart with age groups on the horizontal axis and the percentage of the population in each group on the vertical axis. Demographic Momentum: refers to the tendency for population growth to continue even after fertility rates have declined to replacement level, due to the young age structure of the population. Demographic Dividends: refers to the economic benefits that arise from changes in the age structure of a population, particularly as a result of declining fertility rates and a growing working-age population. Dependency Crises: occurs when the ratio of dependent individuals (such as children and the elderly) to working-age individuals in a population becomes too high, placing strain on social welfare systems and economic productivity. International Migration: refers to the movement of people across international borders, typically for reasons such as work, family reunification, or seeking asylum Remittances: funds that migrants send back to their home countries, often to support their families or invest in their communities Brain Drains: the emigration of highly skilled or educated individuals from one country to another, often resulting in a loss of talent and human capital for the country of origin. Push Factors: reasons that compel people to leave their home countries, such as poverty, political instability or conflict Pull Factors: reasons that attract people to immigrate to a new country, such as economic opportunity, political stability, or family reunification. Voluntary Migration: occurs when individuals choose to move to another country or region Forced Migration: occurs when individuals are compelled to move due to persecution, conflict, or environmental disasters. Refugees: individuals who have been forced to flee their home countries due to persecution, war, or violence and have sought refuge in another country. Internally Displaced Persons(IDPs): individuals who have been forced to flee their homes but remain within the borders of their own country. U.S. Immigration Patterns: refer to the historical trends and demographic characteristics of immigrants to the United States, including their countries of origin, reasons for immigration, and settlement patterns.  The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965: a U.S. federal law that abolished the national origins quota system for immigration and established a preference system based on family reunification and skills. Mass Urbanization: refers to the rapid growth of cities and the increasing concentration of the population in urban areas, often as a result of rural-to-urban migration and natural population growth. Megacities: cities with populations of over 10 million people. ○ Examples: Tokyo, New York City, and Shanghai.