Encode: The process of transforming sensory input into a form that the brain can store, such as turning sights and sounds into neural codes. Storage: Maintaining encoded informatio... Encode: The process of transforming sensory input into a form that the brain can store, such as turning sights and sounds into neural codes. Storage: Maintaining encoded information in the brain over time. It refers to how and where information is kept in the brain's memory systems. Retrieval: The process of accessing stored information when it is needed. This can involve recognizing or recalling past information. Short-Term Memory: A temporary memory system that holds a limited amount of information (about 7 items) for a short period, around 20–30 seconds. Long-Term Memory: A vast and durable memory system capable of holding information for long periods, potentially for a lifetime. Working Memory Model: A model proposed by Baddeley and Hitch that describes short-term memory as an active system for temporarily holding and manipulating information, with components like the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. Multi-Store Model: Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model of memory that proposes three distinct stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, with information passing between these stores through attention and rehearsal. Primary Memory System: Refers to the first level of memory, such as working memory or short-term memory, where new information is held before being processed further. Central Executive: The control center of the working memory model, responsible for directing attention and coordinating other subsystems (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad). Phonological Loop: A component of working memory that deals with auditory and verbal information. It stores spoken words and rehearses them to prevent decay. Visuospatial Sketchpad: The part of working memory responsible for handling visual and spatial information. Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): The strengthening of synaptic connections between neurons after repeated stimulation, which is believed to be a key process in the formation of memories. Module 2.4: Explicit Memories: Also known as declarative memories, these are memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously recall and declare, such as events (episodic memory) and knowledge (semantic memory). Effortful Processing: The process of encoding information that requires conscious effort and attention, such as studying for an exam. Automatic Processing: The unconscious encoding of information, such as remembering the location of objects in a room or the timing of daily events. Implicit Memory: A type of memory that involves skills and conditioned responses, often recalled without conscious effort (e.g., riding a bike, procedural memory). Sensory Memory: The brief storage of sensory information from the environment, lasting just a fraction of a second (iconic and echoic memory). Iconic Memory: A brief sensory memory of visual stimuli, lasting less than a second. Echoic Memory: A brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli, lasting about 3–4 seconds. Short-Term Capacity: Refers to the limited number of items that can be held in short-term memory, often described as 7±2 pieces of information. Chunking: A memory strategy where information is organized into meaningful groups or 'chunks' to enhance short-term memory capacity. Mnemonics: Memory aids that use vivid imagery or organizational techniques to help remember information (e.g., acronyms, method of loci). Hierarchies: A memory strategy where information is structured from general to specific concepts, helping with understanding and recall. Spacing Effect: The tendency to retain information better when study sessions are spaced out over time, rather than crammed into a short period (massed practice). Testing Effect: The phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced by practicing retrieval of information (e.g., through self-testing) rather than just reviewing material. Method of Loci: A mnemonic technique that involves associating information with specific locations in a familiar place to enhance memory recall. Massed Practice: A study technique where large amounts of information are crammed in a short time, leading to poorer long-term retention compared to spaced practice. Distributed Practice: A study technique where information is reviewed over longer periods, which improves long-term retention and learning. Shallow Encoding: Encoding information based on surface features, such as appearance or sound, rather than meaning, leading to weaker recall. Deep Encoding: Encoding information by focusing on its meaning and associations, resulting in stronger, more durable memories. Structural, Phonemic, and Semantic Encoding: Structural Encoding: Processing information based on how it looks (e.g., recognizing capital letters in a word). Phonemic Encoding: Processing information based on how it sounds (e.g., rhyming). Semantic Encoding: Processing information based on its meaning (e.g., understanding a word in context), which leads to better recall. Levels of Processing Model: A theory that suggests the depth at which information is processed (shallow vs. deep) determines how well it is stored and remembered. Maintenance Rehearsal: A memory technique where information is repeated over and over without considering its meaning, useful for short-term retention. Elaborative Rehearsal: A memory technique where new information is linked to existing knowledge in a meaningful way, helping transfer it to long-term memory. Read more