Understanding Psychopathology: Models and History

• Psychopathology involves the study of mental disorders

History of Understanding Mental Illness

• Early civilizations attributed mental disorders to supernatural forces
• Hippocrates was among the first to propose a biological basis for mental illness
• Emil Kraepelin developed early classifications of mental disorders in the 19th and 20th centuries
• Sigmund Freud introduced psychoanalysis in the 19th and 20th centuries
• Cognitive and behavioral approaches, pioneered by figures like Aaron Beck, have recently become prominent

Models of Abnormal Behavior

• One-Dimensional Model explains disorders based on a single factor like biology or environment alone
• Multipath Model suggests disorders arise from a combination of biological, psychological, social, and sociocultural influences
• Protective factors (buffers) decrease the likelihood of developing a disorder
• Risk factors increase vulnerability to developing a disorder

Clinical Research, Assessment, and Diagnosis

• Comorbidity refers to the presence of more than one disorder in an individual at the same time
• Categorical Diagnosis helps standardize the classification of mental illnesses for better communication among professionals
• Differential Diagnosis involves distinguishing between disorders with similar symptoms
• A test is reliable if its results are consistent
• A test is valid if it measures what it is intended to measure

Anxiety and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders

• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) consists of uncontrollable obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (repetitive behaviors)
• Panic Disorder involves sudden, unexpected panic attacks accompanied by intense fear
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is characterized by chronic worry about various aspects of life
• Hoarding Disorder involves difficulty discarding possessions, resulting in excessive clutter
• Specific Phobia is an intense fear of a particular object or situation (e.g., heights, spiders)
• Agoraphobia is the fear of situations where escape may be difficult or help might not be available
• Body Dysmorphic Disorder involves an obsessive focus on perceived physical flaws
• Anxiety is a future-oriented worry
• Fear is an immediate response to a perceived threat
• Exposure Therapy involves gradual exposure to feared situations to reduce anxiety

Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders

• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) involves flashbacks, nightmares, and heightened arousal after experiencing trauma
• Duration of Acute Stress Disorder is less than a month but symptoms are similar to PTSD
• Adjustment Disorder is the struggle to adjust to a major life change
• Allostatic Load is the cumulative burden of chronic stress
• Chronic stress can weaken the immune system due to prolonged cortisol release
• Prolonged Exposure Therapy is a PTSD treatment involving repeated exposure to traumatic memories in a safe setting

Somatic Symptom and Dissociative Disorders

• Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) involves the presence of multiple distinct personalities within an individual
• Sociocognitive Model of DID suggests that DID is influenced by cultural context and therapist suggestion
• Conversion Disorder presents neurological symptoms (e.g., blindness, paralysis) without an identifiable medical cause
• Illness Anxiety Disorder (Hypochondriasis) centers on a preoccupation with having a serious illness
• Somatic Symptom Disorder involves physical symptoms accompanied by excessive worry
• Factitious Disorder involves the faking of illness for attention
• Munchausen’s Syndrome by Proxy involves inducing illness in another person for attention
• Dissociative Fugue involves sudden travel away from home accompanied by memory loss
• Anterograde Amnesia is the inability to form new memories
• Retrograde Amnesia is the loss of past memories
• Interoceptive Exposure involves exposing individuals to bodily sensations linked to anxiety to reduce fear

Depressive and Bipolar Disorders

• Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) involves persistent sadness, loss of interest, and fatigue
• Bipolar I Disorder presents full manic episodes, and possibly depressive episodes
• Bipolar II Disorder presents hypomanic episodes with major depressive episodes
• Cyclothymic Disorder presents milder, chronic mood swings
• Hypomania is a less severe form of mania characterized by increased energy and impulsivity
• Manic Episodes include elevated mood, hyperactivity, and risky behaviors
• Rumination is defined as repetitive, negative thinking
• Women are more likely to be diagnosed with MDD, potentially due to hormonal and societal factors
• Depression and anxiety are more common in women
• Substance use and antisocial behaviors are more common in men
• Cognitive Model of Depression (Beck’s Cognitive Triad) suggests that negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future contribute to depression
• Mood disorders all involve disturbances in mood, whether it’s extreme sadness or extreme highs and lows

Explore psychopathology, its historical understanding from early civilizations to modern models. Learn about the early biological explanations, the development of classifications, and the different models of abnormal behavior. Discover how risk and protective factors influence mental disorders.