The Scientific Revolution Part Two: The Scientific Method

The Scientific Revolution

• The Scientific Revolution was a new way of understanding the world around us and the heavens, which emerged from the Age of Exploration and the Renaissance.
• It involved the development of the scientific method, which includes:
  • Pose a question based on observations
  • Form a hypothesis
  • Conduct an experiment based on the data collected
  • Analyze the data to reach a conclusion or new hypothesis

Key Figures of the Scientific Revolution

• Francis Bacon (1600s) introduced inductive reasoning and empiricism, emphasizing observation and experimentation to draw conclusions.
• Rene Descartes used mathematics and reason to arrive at basic truths, doubting everything except his own existence.
• Isaac Newton (1643-1727) is considered the father of modern science, creating calculus and the Universal Laws of Gravitation.
• Newton's laws of motion include:
  • An object stays at rest or in motion unless another force is exerted on it.
  • F=MA (force equals mass times acceleration).
  • For every action, there is an opposite and equal reaction.

Scientific Instruments and Discoveries

• Zacharias Janssen (1590) invented the microscope.
• Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674) observed bacteria and red blood cells with a microscope.
• Evangelista Torricelli (1643) developed the first barometer, measuring atmospheric pressure and weather.
• The Royal Society (1660) and the Academy of Sciences (1666) were established to support scientific study.
• Gabriel Fahrenheit (1714) used mercury to measure temperature, with water freezing at 32 degrees.
• Anders Celsius (1742) developed a temperature scale with water freezing at 0 degrees.

Contributions to the Study of the Human Body

• Scientists relied on the Roman, Galen, to understand the body, but others made new discoveries.
• Andreas Vesalius (1543) proved many of Galen's assumptions were wrong in his work, "On the Structure of the Human Body".
• Edward Jenner developed the vaccine for smallpox in the 1700s.
• Robert Boyle is considered the founder of modern chemistry, and his law states that volume, air, and pressure affect each other.
• Boyle discovered that everything is made up of smaller particles, or atoms, as proposed by Democritus (460-370 BCE).

The Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment grew out of the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution, questioning the role of government and rulers.
• Key figures of the Enlightenment include:
  • Thomas Hobbes, who believed in the social contract and the need for a strong ruler.
  • John Locke, who promoted self-government, self-determination, and the protection of life, liberty, and property.
  • Voltaire, who fought for tolerance, freedom of religion, and freedom of speech.
  • Baron de Montesquieu, who believed in a tricameral government and the division of power.
  • Jean Jacques Rousseau, who believed in individual freedom and the direct democracy.
  • Cesare Beccaria, who advocated for criminal justice reform.

The Enlightenment's Impact on Art and Literature

• The Enlightenment led to the emergence of Neoclassicism in art, characterized by elegance and simplicity.
• In literature, novels became more widely written and popular with the middle class.
• Composers like Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig Van Beethoven developed the Classical era of music.
• The Enlightenment influenced monarchs, such as Frederick the Great of Prussia and Joseph II of Austria, to rule justly and implement reforms.