Sport and Exercise Psychology Principles

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Questions and Answers

What does the principle of responsible caring emphasize?

Minimizing harm and maximizing benefits (correct)

Certifying qualified consultants

Maintaining objectivity

Developing knowledge through inquiry

Which year marked the establishment of the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology?

1986

1965

1967

1977 (correct)

What significant event occurred in North American sport psychology in 1986?

Certification process for consultants

Founding of NASPSPA

The establishment of the ISSP

Publication of The Sport Psychologist (correct)

Which organization was founded in 1989 to contribute to applied sport psychology research?

AASP Signup and view all the answers

Which trend is predicted to increase in the field of sport and exercise psychology in Canada?

Interdepartmental collaboration Signup and view all the answers

What does the principle of integrity in relationships focus on?

Maintaining objectivity and remaining unbiased Signup and view all the answers

In which region did sport and exercise psychology develop most rapidly in the 20th century?

Australia Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the first significant advancements in sport psychology that occurred in 1965?

Establishment of ISSP Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of motivational self-talk?

To foster mastery, arousal, and drive Signup and view all the answers

Which dimension of self-talk determines if it is perceived as positive or negative?

Valence Signup and view all the answers

How does motivational self-talk differ from instructional self-talk?

Instructional self-talk is related to skill development and execution Signup and view all the answers

Which technique is NOT used for reducing arousal levels?

Motivational self-talk Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the Self-Talk Grid?

To assess valence and directional interpretation of self-talk Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following examples reflects positive self-talk?

I am capable of overcoming challenges Signup and view all the answers

In the dimension of directional intensity, what does 'very much so' indicate?

High levels of motivation or demotivation Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of the Self-Talk Use Questionnaire?

What athletes say to themselves during different situations Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect does not affect the required behavior of a leader?

Global economic conditions Signup and view all the answers

Which leadership style is characterized by a lack of decision-making and indifference?

Laissez-faire leadership Signup and view all the answers

What is a core feature of transformational leadership?

Intellectual stimulation Signup and view all the answers

How can transformational leadership behaviors be improved?

Through professional development training Signup and view all the answers

Which element is not included in the leadership scale for sports (LSS)?

Visionary leadership Signup and view all the answers

What negative outcome may result from misalignment of leader behavior states?

Diminished performance and/or satisfaction Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key dimension of transformational leadership?

Individualized consideration Signup and view all the answers

Which approach involves contingent rewards based on task completion?

Transactional leadership Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic does not influence member characteristics in leadership?

Nationality Signup and view all the answers

What type of feedback is essential for the positive reinforcement of athletes?

Positive feedback Signup and view all the answers

What aspect differentiates individuals in terms of personality?

Overall organization of psychological characteristics Signup and view all the answers

Which trait model includes the categories of openness to experience and neuroticism?

Digman's Big Five model Signup and view all the answers

In the context of personality, what does the term 'trait' refer to?

A stable characteristic influencing behavior Signup and view all the answers

How does humanistic psychology view personal growth?

It focuses on fulfilling one's potential and self-actualization. Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT part of Freud's structure of personality?

Consciousness Signup and view all the answers

What do cognitive-behavioral approaches emphasize in terms of behavior?

Learned behaviors through experience and consequences Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary feature of Bandura's social learning theory?

Behaviors are learned through observation and modeling. Signup and view all the answers

According to biological theories, what significantly influences personality?

Heritability and evolutionary basis Signup and view all the answers

Which somatotype is associated with sociability and relaxation?

Endomorph Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the term 'state' in psychology?

A short-term emotional response Signup and view all the answers

What effect size was reported regarding the ability to differentiate athletes of differing skill levels based on mood states?

0.10 Signup and view all the answers

In the context of predicting performance outcomes, what was the effect size found in the second meta-analysis?

0.35 Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following sports tends to show a larger effect size regarding mood states?

Wrestling Signup and view all the answers

What misconception is mentioned about elite athletes?

A distinct elite athlete personality profile exists. Signup and view all the answers

What are the three key concepts related to motivation outlined in the content?

Direction, Intensity, Persistence Signup and view all the answers

Which process operates quickly and without awareness in human behavior regulation?

Non-conscious processes Signup and view all the answers

How can cognitive structures be trained according to the content?

By using cue interventions Signup and view all the answers

What is a common belief about people's engagement in physical activities?

They select activities based on their personality. Signup and view all the answers

What psychological state is represented by an athlete's desire to continue participation in sport?

Sport Commitment Model Signup and view all the answers

What is one identified determinant of the Sport Commitment Model?

Success. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Principle 2: Responsible Caring

Minimizing harm and maximizing benefits is a key aspect of responsible caring.

Principle 3: Integrity in Relationships

Maintaining objectivity and remaining unbiased is crucial for integrity in professional relationships.

Principle 4: Responsibility to Society

Developing knowledge through inquiry is a fundamental responsibility to society.

History of Sport and Exercise Psychology

The International Society of Sport Psychology was established in 1965.
The first conference of the North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) took place in 1967.
The Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology (SCAPPS) was founded in 1977.
The journal of Sport Psychology was established in 1979.
The Sport Psychologist published its first issue on applied topics in 1986.
The Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology (AAASP) was founded in 1986.
The journal of Applied Sport Psychology was established in 1989.
The US Olympic Sport Psychology Registry was established in 1989.

Around The World

The Institute for the Study of Sport and Physical Culture was established in the Soviet Union in 1919.
The first World Congress of Sport Psychology took place in Rome in 1965, leading to the founding of the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP).
The European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC) was founded in 1969.
Sport and exercise psychology is widespread in universities in Britain.
Psychology departments in Australia collaborate to offer sports science graduate programs.
Japan, China, and Korea lead the study of applied sport and other sport sciences in Asia.
The development of sport and exercise psychology in Africa and Central America is slow.

Predicted Trends and Issues in Canada

Increased specialization and diversification in the field is expected.
Research and teaching opportunities will grow.
The demand for training in clinical and counseling psychology will increase.
Interdepartmental collaboration in teaching, research, and practice will become more prominent.
Ethics and competencies in the field will be crucial.
Professionals will increasingly work in performance enhancement teams at different levels.

Personality

Personality refers to the overall organization of an individual's psychological characteristics.
It involves systematic variations in how people think, feel, and behave.
It emphasizes individual differences, setting individuals apart and influencing consistent behavior across time and situations.
A disposition is a broad, pervasive, encompassing way of relating to specific types of people or situations.

Personality Traits

A trait is a relatively stable characteristic or quality that represents a portion of one's personality.
Traits are used to explain an individual's behaviour across time and situations.
A state refers to momentary feelings and thoughts that change depending on the situation and time.
People possess certain traits that influence their behaviour.
Trait theories suggest consistency of behaviour from one situation to the next and generalizability of behaviour between contexts.

Trait Models

Cattell's Trait Personality Model (1946, 1995) identified 16 different personality trait dichotomies.
Digman's Big Five Model (1990) identifies five key personality traits: Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (OCEAN).

How Does Personality Develop?

Humanistic Psychology focuses on personal responsibility, human growth, personal striving, and individual dignity.
- Self-actualization is the process of fulfilling one's potential.
- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a pyramid representing the progression of human needs, with basic needs being met before higher needs can be pursued.
Cognitive-Behavioural Approach views behaviour as learned through experience, influenced by rewards and punishment.
- Self-efficacy is the belief in one's capabilities to achieve a goal or outcome, influencing an individual's behavior.
- Social Learning Theory emphasizes the active role individuals play in shaping their behaviors, influenced by inner drives and environments.
  - Observational learning/modeling occurs when people learn by observing, retaining, and replicating others' behaviours.
  - People are more likely to adopt a behaviour if it results in valued outcomes.
  - This theory focuses on the reciprocal influence between situations and individuals.
Biological/Evolutionary Theories suggest that personality can be moderately heritable, indicating an evolutionary basis.
- Biological Theories posit that individual differences in extraversion reflect differences in cortical arousal, and neuroticism is a manifestation of individual differences in limbic activity.
- Sheldon's Constitutional Theory (Somatotype) associates body types with personality traits:
  - Endomorph (roundness) is linked to affection, sociability, and relaxation.
  - Ectomorph (linearity) is associated with tenseness, introversion, artistic tendencies, and intellectualism.
  - Mesomorph (muscularity) is linked to aggressiveness, dominance, and risk-taking.
Psychodynamic Theories (Freud) propose that all behaviour is interconnected and driven by unconscious forces.
- Id operates on the pleasure principle.
- Ego operates on the reality principle.
- Superego represents the internalized morals and values, operating on the should/should-not principle.

Reflections

Bandura argues that people learn that aggression in sport is often acceptable through observing role models.
When spectators and teammates cheer on combatants, young players learn that this type of behavior is expected and valued.
It is a question whether athletes can adopt sports personalities through the process of modeling and imitation.

Mood States and Achievement Levels

Beedie, Terry, and Lane (2000) conducted a meta-analysis of studies examining the relationship between mood states and achievement levels.
They found a very low effect size (0.10), indicating that it is not possible to consistently differentiate between athletes of differing skill levels based on mood states.

Mood States and Performance Outcomes

Researchers investigate whether performance outcomes of athletes with similar skill levels can be predicted based on their mood states.
A meta-analysis by Beedie, Terry, and Lane (2000) found a small-to-medium effect size (0.35), suggesting a limited but present relationship between mood states and performance outcomes.
Differences exist based on the type of sport and how performance is measured.

Mood States and Type of Sport

Effects are slightly larger for individual sports compared to team sports.
Effects are larger for short-duration sports (rowing, wrestling) compared to long-duration sports (basketball, volleyball).

Common Myths

There is no distinct elite athlete personality profile.
People do not choose and remain in physical activities solely based on their personality.

Motivation and Behaviour Change

Motivation is a goal-focused process that initiates and sustains activity directed at achieving that goal.
Key concepts include:
- Direction: Situations a person seeks out, approaches, or is attracted to.
- Intensity: The amount of effort exerted.
- Persistence: Maintaining intensity over a period of time.

Approaches to Understanding Motivation

Non-Conscious Processes: These processes operate quickly, without awareness, based on feelings, and require minimal cognitive resources.
- They can influence behavior even without conscious control.
- In sport, non-conscious processes can emerge when conscious processes are repeatedly linked to a behavior.
Sport Commitment Model: This model represents the desire or resolve to continue sport participation.
- Determinants: Factors that influence commitment include instructional and motivational elements.
- Success in sport requires commitment.

Functions of Self-Talk

Instructional Self-Talk: This is the overt or covert speech people use for skill development, execution, strategy, and performance enhancement.
Motivational Self-Talk: This type of self-talk serves three purposes:
- Mastery: Encouraging oneself to improve skills.
- Arousal: Regulating arousal levels.
- Drive: Boosting effort and motivation.

The Six Dimensions of Self-Talk

Valence: Positive or negative.
Verbalization: Overt (spoken) or covert (internal).
Self-determination: Assigned (external pressure) or freely chosen.
Directional Interpretation: Motivating or demotivating.
Directional Intensity: Very much so or not at all.
Frequency: Often or never.

Assessment of Self-Talk

The Self-Talk Grid (Hardy, Gammage, & Hall, 2001): Measures valence (positive vs. negative) and directional interpretation (motivating vs. demotivating).
The Self-Talk Use Questionnaire (Hardy, 2005): Explores when, what, why, and how athletes use self-talk.
Self-Talk and Gestures Rating Scale (Brewer, Rivera, & Petitpas, 1994): Assesses self-talk and accompanying gestures.

Arousal Regulation

There is a relationship between arousal and performance.
Athletes use techniques to regulate their arousal levels, either to reduce or increase it.

Techniques to Reduce Arousal

Breathing: Diaphragmatic breathing increases oxygen intake.
Progressive Relaxation: Involves tensing and relaxing specific muscles.
Meditation: Facilitates deep relaxation of the mind.
Biofeedback: Allows athletes to monitor and control bodily signals.

Leadership Characteristics

Personality: This includes traits like charisma, confidence, and empathy.
Expertise: Knowledge and skills specific to the field or activity.
Experience: Past experiences that have shaped leadership skills.

Member Characteristics

Personality: Individual personality traits and how they interact with leadership style.
Gender: Gender roles and expectations can influence leader-member interaction.
Age: Age-related differences in maturity, experience, and motivation.
Ability: Comparing an individual's ability to the task demands.

Required Behaviour

These are the prescriptions and proscriptions defined by the situation and group characteristics.

Actual Behaviour

This is how the leader actually behaves, shaped by their characteristics and the situation.

Preferred Behaviour

This reflects the followers' preferences for specific forms of behaviour.

Satisfaction and Performance

Misalignment between leader behaviour, required behaviour, and preferred behaviour can lead to decreased performance and satisfaction.
This can make the leader's position unsustainable.

Leadership Scale for Sport (LSS)

This scale assesses five leadership behaviours/dimensions:
- Training and Instruction: Behavior focused on improving performance.
- Positive Feedback: Reinforcing and rewarding good performance.
- Social Support: Demonstrating concern for athletes' well-being.
- Autocratic: Authority and independent decision-making by the coach.
- Democratic: Involving athletes in decision making.

Takeaways

The multidimensional model of leadership receives some support from research.
Some aspects of leadership are not comprehensively tested.
The LSS has limitations, including a restricted range of behaviors and omission of salient behaviors.

Transactional and Transformational Leadership

Laissez-faire Leadership: This style is characterized by indifference, absence, and hesitancy to make decisions.
Transactional Leadership: This style involves exchanges between the leader and followers.
- Management by Exception: Leaders wait for problems to arise and take corrective action.
- Contingent Reward: Leaders use rewards for successful task completion.
Transformational Leadership: This style goes beyond self-interest to empower, inspire, and encourage followers.
- Intellectual Stimulation: Fostering independent thinking and new perspectives.
- Individualized Consideration: Attending to individual needs and providing support.
- Inspirational Motivation: Providing vision, optimism, and belief in followers' potential.
- Idealized Influence: Serving as role models and demonstrating values and beliefs.

Supplementing Transactional Leadership

Augmentation Effect: Transformational leadership can enhance transactional leadership, resulting in more positive work attitudes, extra effort, and higher performance.

Nature and Nurture

Research in behavioral genetics suggests that both leadership behavior and occupancy can be explained by genetics.
Transformational leadership in parents is positively related to their adolescent children's transformational leadership behavior.

Training and Intervention

Transformational leadership behaviors can be developed through professional development training.
This training can lead to improvements for both leaders and followers in a range of outcomes.

Transformational Teaching in PE

This approach can lead to:
- Improved beliefs and attitudes.
- Greater motivation.
- Increased enjoyment.
- Enhanced engagement and involvement.
- Greater effort in class.

This concept explores whether people identify more as individuals ("you") or as part of a group ("we").

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Description

Explore the key principles of responsible caring, integrity in relationships, and societal responsibilities within sport and exercise psychology. This quiz also delves into the historical context and developments of this field, highlighting significant organizations and publications. Test your knowledge on these important concepts!