APA 2140 Lecture Notes PDF

APA 2140 lecture notes Lecture 1 Introduction to sport and exercise psychology part 1 -- chapter 1 Definitions Psychology - Primarily scientific study of human behaviour, affect and cognition Sport and exercise - Activities involving powers, skills, competition, strategy and/or chance...

APA 2140 lecture notes Lecture 1 Introduction to sport and exercise psychology part 1 -- chapter 1 Definitions Psychology - Primarily scientific study of human behaviour, affect and cognition Sport and exercise - Activities involving powers, skills, competition, strategy and/or chance, and engaged in for the enjoyment, satisfaction and/or personal gain of the participant and/or others. Nature of sport and exercise psychology - Many definitions for "sport and exercise psychology" - Emphasis varies and includes sport science, performance enhancement and psychological principles applied to sport settings. - Consistent in that many definitions reference psychology and sport/exercise/physical activity - An interdisciplinary scientific and applied field that embraces the integration of sport and exercise science and psychological knowledge - A branch of sport and exercise science that involves the scientific study of human behaviour in sport and exercise and the partial application of the knowledge in sport and exercise settings Sport and exercise: a multidimensional perspective - Traditional and emerging psychology disciplines impact sport and exercise psychology - Examples: cognitive psychology, clinical and counselling psychology, behavioural neuroscience, social psychology, developmental psychology, and health psychology - Other academic disciplines influence psychology (e.g., computer science, sociology, medicine, education, family studies, gender studies, etc.) Two major objectives of sport and exercise psychology Understand the effect of: 1. Psychological factors. On behaviour and performance 2. Participating in sport and exercise on psychological development, health, and well-being Sport and exercise psychology Sample of areas of study at UOttawa:\ Mental health and cognition\ Stress, coping, and emotion in sport\ Friendships and social support\ Motivation for sport and physical activity\ Perceptions of physical self / body image\ Special populations\ Sport commitment and development\ Culture and physical activity\ Group cohesion and dynamics Positive psychology in sport and exercise psychology - Recent interest in positive psychology - Focuses on understanding processes that enable people and groups to thrive - Examines well-being, satisfaction, fulfillment, pleasure and happiness - Positive approach may benefit performance enhancement and lead to strengthening psychological resiliency and perseverance. - Resiliency: adapting positively to adversity or risk - Assist in developing skills to avoid thinking traps, staying calm and focused, and creating proper perspective. Includes three intervention approaches - Emotional focuses on joy, happiness, enjoyment, and satisfaction - Cognitive focuses on how optimism influences moods, motivation, and performance - Behavioural focuses on enhancing self-regulation strategies Careers in sport and exercise psychology - Research - Teaching - Consulting Teaching: - Employed by universities and colleges - Have a primary responsibility for teaching - Courses range from introductory to advance - Provide educational services to community and sport organizations Research: - Responsibility to advance knowledge - Scholars design, conduct, and evaluate research - Areas of research include personality, motivation, anxiety, stress and coping, aggression, etc. - Attempt to describe, predict, explain and sometimes change. Consulting: - Help individuals, teams, and organizations improve performance - Enhance sport performance and personal well-being - Consultants work in three roles: 1. Educational 2. Counselling 3. Clinical psychology Training to be a sport and exercise psychologist specialist - Multiple career tracks combine teaching, research, performance enhancement, and clinical/counselling services - There are two general training orientations 1. Sport science education 2. Clinical/ counselling sport psychology Sport science education: - Working in university and college settings requires teaching and research skills - Academics work in: - Sport science - Research methods - Additional courses in psychology and/or counselling Clinical and counselling sport and exercise psychology - Clinical psychology focuses on: - Assessing and rehabilitating serious psychological dysfunctions - Counselling focuses on: - Helping people adjustment and/or development problems Licensing of sport and exercise psychologists - Provincial and territorial laws regulate the term 'psychologist' - Requires educational training - Must pass psychological licensing board exams - In applied settings, terms such as mental skills trainer, sport and exercise psychology consultant, and sport science consultant are used. - Practitioners must meet standards of conduct - Canadian sport psychology association (CSPA) regulates standards and competencies - Table 1.3 lists the standards and competencies The Canadian Sport Psychology Association lists consultants who fulfill the following\ basic criteria:\ A master's degree in sport psychology or a related field\ Successful completion of a variety of courses relevant to sport psychology\ consultation and foundational disciplines, such as human kinetics or kinesiology,\ psychology, and counselling\ Extensive sport psychology consulting experience\ Hands-on experience in sport\ Favourable supervisor and client evaluation Standards of conduct and practitioner competencies in sport and exercise psychology - Ethics concerned with matters or right and wrong - Ethics refers to parameters of relationship between consultant and client - Ethical responsibility: at best, help athletes/exercisers, and at worst, do no harm - Ethical codes provide guidelines governing relationships Three Codes of ethics relevant in Canada: 1. Association for applied sport psychology (AASP) ethical principles and standards 2. Canadian sport psychology association (CSPA) code of ethics 3. Canadian psychology association (CPA) code of ethics for psychologists CPA code of ethics for psychologists Principle 1: respect for the dignity of persons - Reinforce moral rights regardless of culture, religion, gender, sexual orientation, etc. Principle 2: responsible caring - Minimize harm and maximize benefits Principle 3: integrity in relationships - Maintain objectivity and remain unbiased Principle 4: responsibility to society - Develop knowledge through inquiry Historical roots History of sport and exercise psychology: Canada and the United States Key events in 1960's & 70's - 1965 -- establishment of the international society of sport psychology - 1967 -- first conference of North American Society for Psychology of sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) - 1977 - Canadian society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology (SCAPPS) was founded - 1979 -- The journal of Sport Psychology was established Key events in the 80's - 1986 -- The Sport Psychologist published its first issue on applied topics - 1986 -- The association for the Advancement of applied sport psychology (AAASP) was founded - 1989 -- the journal of Applied Sport Psychology was established - US Olympic sport psychology registry established Key events since 1990 - Expansion and diversification of sport, exercise and health psychology in universities - Canadian universities offer graduate programs in sport, exercise and health psychology - Granting agencies direct research funding to sport and exercise psychology research - CSPA and AASP developed a process to certify qualified consultants Around the world Key events - Institute for the Study of Sport and Physical Culture was established in the Soviet Union (1919) - The first World Congress of Sport Psychology (1965) in Rome leads to the founding of the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) - European Federation of Sport Psychology (FEPSAC) was founded in 1969 - Britain: sport and exercise psychology widespread in universities - Australia: psychology departments cooperate to offer sports science graduate programs - Asia: Japan, China, and Korea lead the study of applied sport and other sport sciences - Africa and Central America: slow development Predicted trends and issues in Canada 1. Increased specialization and diversification 2. Increased research and teaching opportunities 3. Increased demands for training in clinical and counselling psychology 4. Interdepartmental collaboration in teaching, research and practice 5. Ethics and competencies 6. Working in performance enhancement teams at different levels 7. Online consulting and service provision 8. Consulting with athletes and exercisers living with a disability or chronic health condition 9. Need for knowledge translation. Common myths - Myth: only athletes or exercisers with serious mental health problems need a sport or exercise psychologist - Myth: all sport psychology specialist work with elite athletes to enhance their performance. Lecture 2 Introduction to sport and exercise psychology -- part 2 Chapter 1 Methods of knowing - Basic research: deals with testing fundamental mechanisms, producing conditions or events without undue concern for the practical utility - Applied research: generates solutions to immediate problems irrespective of mechanistic details Basic research terminology - Scientific constructs: specifically defined terms that have been created for a scientific purpose - Variable: a scientific construct that can be assigned a specific value to be counted - Independent variable (IV) the manipulated variable explaining (or causing) a change in the dependent variable - Dependent variable (DV) a non-manipulated variable (outcome) that is expected to change as result of manipulating the independent variable - Extraneous variables (EV) variable other than IV that could influence the DV Theory defined - A theory represents a set of interrelated constructs that present a systematic view of a phenomenon by specifying the relation between these constructs with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomenon Theory - Both a guide and a goal of research - Serves as a source for question to research and it explains behaviour - Typically described as a systematic explanation of a phenomenon based on scientific evidence - Never final but are constantly developed and revised or replaced with new information - Hypothesis: educated guess regarding the outcome of a research study or about the nature of relationships between constructs - Example: moderate intensity exercise will improve mental and physical well-being in women - Null hypothesis: indicates no relationship between the variables under study or no difference exists between the groups receiving or not receiving the independent variable - Casual: process of identifying agents that when manipulated bring about the desired changes in the DV's of interest Theory of planned behaviour Attitude toward the behaviour behaviour intention Behaviour Subjective norm perceived behavioural control Approaches to research: Quantitative - Quantifies (counts) the amount of a particular variable(s) - Methodology grounded in natural sciences (physics, biology, chemistry) - Primary ways of collecting data: - Heart rate, accelerometer data, observations, survey data - Methods are based on philosophical assumptions about nature of reality (ontology) and structure of knowledge (epistemology) - Methods assume: - Reality is objective - Reality is governed by laws - Knowledge is formed over time by objective reports from objective researchers Approaches to research: qualitative - Aimed at understanding the meanings people assign their experiences through the collection and interpretation of non-numerical data - Provides detailed information and level of understanding not found in quantitative research - Primary ways of collecting data - In-depth interviews, direct observation, analysis of written documents, visual data - Many different types of qualitative approaches: - Qualitative description - Grounded theory - Ethnography - Phenomenology - Narrative analysis - Community-based participatory action research - Narrative inquiry Approaches to research: mixed methods - A combined approach using both quantitative and qualitative methods of research - Growing in popularity Research design - Randomized experimental - Randomly assigns participants to different conditions - Manipulates independent variable - Quasi-experimental - Does not randomly assign participants to different conditions - Non-experimental (observational) - Common in sport and exercise psychology research - Establish relationships in absence of group assignment or variable manipulation Evidence-based practice - Uses best available research to inform clinical decision-making and service delivery - Context such as client characteristics, cultural backgrounds and treatment preferences need to be considered - Interventions: maximize benefits and minimize harm Lecture 3 Chapter 2 -- personality in sport and exercise Broad definition of personality - The underlying, relatively stable, psychological structures and processes that organize human experience and shape a person's actions and reactions to the environment What is personality? - Personality: Overall organization of psychological characteristics - A systematic variation in the way people think, feel and behave - Emphasis on individual differences - Differentiates us from other and leads us to act consistently across time and situations - Disposition: a broad, pervasive, encompassing way of relating to particular types of people or situations Personality traits - Trait: a relatively stable characteristic or quality that may represent a portion of one's personality - A quality used to explain an individuals behaviour across time and situations - State: momentary feelings and thoughts that change depending on the situation and time - People have certain traits that influence behaviour - Trait theories imply: - Consistency of behaviour from one situation to the next - Generalizability of behaviour between contexts Trait models: 1. Cattell's (1946, 1995) Trait personality model" - 16 different personality trait dichotomies 2. Digman's (1990) Big five model) OCEAN - Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism How does personality develop Humanistic psychology - A psychological approach that focuses on personal responsibility, human growth, personal striving, and individual dignity - Self-actualization: attempts to fulfill one's potential - Maslow's hierarchy of needs pyramid - One basic needs are met individuals strive to meet higher needs Cognitive-behavioural approach - Behaviour is learned through experience - Influenced by rewards and punishment - Self-efficacy - Belief in one's capabilities to achieve a goal or outcome - Influences an individual's behaviour - Social learning theory - People are active in shaping their behaviours and are influenced by their inner drives and environments - Observational learning/modelling: people learn by observing, retaining and replicating others' behaviours - People are more likely to adopt a behaviour if it results in valued outcomes - Focuses on how situations and individuals reciprocally influence each other Biological/ evolutionary theories Biological theories - Personality can be moderately heritable thus suggesting an evolutionary basis - Belief that: - Individual differences in extraversion reflect differences in cortical arousal - Neuroticism is manifestation of individual differences in limbic activity Sheldon's constitutional theory (somatotype) Endomorph -- roundness, affection, sociability, relaxation Ectomorph -- linearity, tenseness, introversion, artistic, intellectual Mesomorph -- muscularity, aggressiveness, dominance, risk-taking All behaviour interconnected and driven by unconscious forces Freud's structure of personality included Id: pleasure principle Ego: reality principle Superego: should/should not principle Reflections - Bandura argues that people learn that aggression in sport is often acceptable through observing role models - When spectators and teammates cheer on the combatants, young players learn that this type of behaviour is expected and valued - Do you think that athletes can adopt sports personalities by this process of modelling and imitation? Think of your own behaviour - Who are your role models and are your behaviours similar to theirs? Interactionist approach - Situations/environment and personal factors reciprocally influence behaviour - Situational interplay between person and environment determines athlete's behaviours - People actively shape their behaviour - Individuals bring specific experiences and dispositions to a physical activity/sport situation - Most preferred approach by psychologists today Circle between personality, behaviour and situations Measurement of personality Ethical considerations: - Shape professional judgement and behaviour - Inform athletes of psychological testing, use of results and who has access - Ensure confidentiality - Administered by qualified individuals - Trait and state measures - General confidence vs. state confidence - Measures should be sport-specific - Two major categories: - 1\. Projective test: subjective open-ended questions - Interesting but difficult to score - E.g., thematic apperception test -- picture interpretation technique - 2\. Objective test; standardized -- the individual has a choice - E.g., multiple choice or true/false Sport-specific measures - Athletic Motivation Inventory (AMI) - First sport specific psychological test - Self-report measure commonly used to assess 11 personality traits that are related to athletic performance - Drive, determination, leadership, aggressiveness, self-confidence, emotional control, conscientiousness, mental toughness, coachability, guilt proneness, leadership, trust\ 190 sport-specific statements - Sport competitive anxiety test (SCAT) - Measures trait anxiety - 10 statements scored on a 3-point scale Additional sport-specific measures - Personality trait of self-confidence: Vealey's (1986) Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory - Task and ego goal orientation: Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ; Duda 1989); Perceptions of Success Questionnaire (POSQ; Roberts, 1993) - Attentional focus: Nideffer's (1976) Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Styles (TAIS) - Conscientiousness and mental toughness: Winning Profile Athletic Instrument (WPAI; Jesse Llobet) - Designed to measure specific personality disposition or traits in athletes - Generally developed for the purpose of studying the relationship between personality and athletic performance The credulous versus the skeptical - Many are polarized on the issue of the credibility of personality research - Some believe that positive and accurate predictions can be made about sport performance from personality profiles based on measured traits - Proponents of this position are considered credulous in nature are generally willing to use results of personality testing in predicting athletic success - Others tend to be skeptical, minimizing the value of personality assessment in predicting athletic success - Overall, personality is not a strong predictor of athletic performance but it is a predictor - Based upon what is known about personality, it is unreasonable to expect a high correlation between a personality disposition and a physical skill. - A person's basic personality should be viewed as just one factor that can contribute to athletic success. Personality research in sport and exercise Individual's personality -- performance Participation -- individual's personality Chicken and egg dilemma Goals of studying personality in sport - To accurately identify the athlete's traits - To identify the degree to which that athlete possess each trait - To predict how the athlete will perform or to explain current behaviour - To identify certain traits as being consistently and marked different between athletes and non-athletes - To predict future sport performance potential (talent identification) - To separate personality traits from related characteristics such as styles, dispositions, orientations, and behavioural tendencies Personality research in sport Risk-taking, sensation seeking, and alexithymia - Risk taking involves narrowing physical and psychological safety margins (Anshel, 2003)\ Question: Do athletes who partake in "high risk sports and exercise" (i.e., skydiving), have different personalities than those who participate in "safer sports and exercise?" - Seeks varied, novel, complex and intense sensations and experiences, and willing to take physical, social, legal and financial risks to obtain experiences (Zuckerman, 1994)\ Declines with age\ Males are more drawn to high-risk sports than females - Alexithymia is the inability to identify one's emotions and to describe these feelings\ Individuals with alexithymia more likely to participate in high-risk sports as compensatory strategy (Barlow et al., 2015) - Competitiveness\ Desire to engage in and strive for success in sport achievement situations\ Sport Orientation Questionnaire measures athletes' desire to win along three specific dimensions:\ 1. Competitiveness\ 2. Win orientation\ 3. Goal orientation - Males are more competitive than females\ Athletes are often more competitive than non-athletes - Perfectionism:\ Multidimensional personality disposition or trait that influences thought, emotion, and behaviour (Hill et al., 2018)\ Characterized by\ High performance standards\ Overly critical self-evaluation - Perfectionism:\ Maladaptive perfectionism: Excessive, unrealistic standards of performance, high doubt, high self-criticism, fear of failure, and high distress\ Adaptive perfectionism: Realistic goal setting, judging success through personal improvement and effort, self-discipline, and achievement striving - Dimensions of perfectionism:\ Personal standards perfectionism (or perfectionistic\ striving (PS)):\ High personal performance standards\ High self-oriented achievement striving\ Associated with adaptive functioning\ Evaluation concerns perfectionism (or perfectionistic concerns (PC)):\ Negative social evaluation\ Excessive self-criticism\ Associated with poor outcomes and maladjustment - Dimensions of perfectionism (Gaudreau & Thompson, 2010): Low evaluation concerns perfectionism / Low personal standards perfectionism\ Non-perfectionism\ Associated with poor outcomes and maladjustment High evaluation concerns\ perfectionism / Low personal standards perfectionism\ Pure evaluative concerns\ perfectionism\ Low evaluation concerns\ perfectionism / High personal\ standards perfectionism\ Pure personal standards\ perfectionism\ High evaluation concerns\ perfectionism / High personal\ standards perfectionism\ Mixed perfectionism - Passion:\ Harmonious Passion (HP)\ Engaging in an activity as part of one's identity and for\ the pleasure of the activity\ Obsessive Passion (OP)\ Involves a more rigid and uncontrolled urge to engage in activities because of external control or feelings of guilt\ ¬ Research suggests HP and OP are positively related to performance - Mental Toughness:\ A set of personal characteristics that allow individuals to cope with stress and anxiety while remaining focused on competition demands to attain important\ achievement goals\ Psychological characteristics include: perceived control, competitiveness, concentration, confidence, commitment, determination, desire, focus, emotional\ intelligence, resilience, persistence, and optimism\ Requires continued practice of psychological skills - Mental Toughness:\ The 4C Model (Clough et al., 2002):\ 1. Challenge to overcome situations\ 2. Control over experiences\ 3. Confidence to overcome experiences\ 4. Commitment to achieving goals - Mental Toughness:\ Key characteristics of mental toughness classified under three broad categories (Jones et al., 2002):\ 1. Strong self-confidence and motivation\ 2. Ability to manage competition and training stress\ 3. Ability to maintain or regain focus when distracted Personality and sport type - Can personality profiles of athletes in one sport be reliably differentiated from those of athletes in another sport?\ First real attempt to answer this question were made with bodybuilders\ E.g., research by Henry (1941), Thune (1949), and Harlow (1951) suggested bodybuilders suffer from feelings of masculine inadequacy, and are overly concerned with health, body build, and manliness\ Studies showed that bodybuilders were high in achievement motivation and resistance to change, but relatively normal in other traits measured - Other athletes\...\ Results show that when football players and wrestlers are contrasted with gymnasts and karate participants, significantly different personality profiles emerged, but wrestlers and football players have similar profiles\ Some research demonstrates that personality profile differences exist between players of team vs individual sports\ Team sport athletes tend to be more anxious, dependent, extraverted, and alert-objective, but less sensitive-imaginative, than individual sport athletes - Overall, the literature shows that athletes in one sport often differ in personality type and profile from athletes in other sports\ However, the point still needs to be made that the state of the art (or science) is still not so refined that one could feel justified in arbitrarily categorizing young athletes based on their personality profiles Player position and personality profile - Overall, the literature shows that athletes in one sport often differ in personality type and profile from athletes in other sports - However, the point still needs to be made that the state of the art (or science) is still not so refined that one could feel justified in arbitrarily categorizing young athletes based on their personality profiles Personality profiles of athletes differing in skill level - As elite athletes move up the athletic pyramid, they become more alike in their personality and psychological traits\ At the base or entrance level of sport, athletes are very heterogeneous (or have different personalities)\ However, certain personality traits will enhance an athlete's likelihood of advancing to a higher level, while other traits will undermine it\ Elite athletes will exhibit similar profiles and will differ as a group from less skilled groups. Athletes versus non-athletes - Athletes differ from non-athletes on many personality traits (Gat & McWhirter, 1998)\ Athletes who participate in team and individual sports are more independent, more objective, and less anxious than non-athletes\ Athletes are more self-confident, competitive, and socially outgoing than non-athletes Personality traits and exercise - Rhodes and Smith's (2006) meta-analysis:\ 65 studies pertaining to major personality traits correlated with physical activity levels\ Extroversion and conscientiousness -- small positive association\ Neuroticism -- small negative relationship\ Personality has small association withexercise behaviour\ Conscientiousness may affect successful translation of good exercise intentions into behaviour\ More-conscientious individuals have larger plans to exercise (Rhodes et al., 2002; Connor, Rodgers and Murray, 2011)\ High conscientious individuals are organized and self-disciplined - Type A Personality\ Blend of competitiveness and hostility with agitated behaviour\ High Extraversion\ High Neuroticism\ High Conscientiousness\ Low Agreeableness\ Positive association between Type A and exercise - Type D Personality\ Blend of worry, gloom, and lack of self- assurance as a cluster of traits used in medical psychology\ Tendency to experience elevated negative affect and social inhibition\ Low extraversion and high neuroticism\ Participates in significantly less physical activity - Targeting exercise programs\ Research may identify at-risk personalities -- people who may struggle adhering to new exercise programs (Rhodes & Smith, 2006)\ Relationship between preferences for exercise and personality is interesting, but limited research - Targeting exercise programs\ Evidence of a relationship between personality and mode of physical activity (Howard et al., 1987)\ Extraverts more likely to engage in swimming, aerobic conditioning, dance, and tennis\ Introverts more likely to engage in gardening and home improvement Situational factors related to mood - We have learned that individuals bring to the athletic situation certain traits or characteristics that are relatively stable and that basic personality traits were predictors of athletic performance\ The environment or the situation is believed to interact with the athlete's personality to influence behaviour and athletic performance Mood state and athletic performance - A personality trait is believed to be a relatively permanent disposition\ E.g., predisposition to be tense in a wide variety of situations\ Conversely, a mood state is believed to be a situation specific, somewhat transient, psychological response to an environmental stimulus\ E.g., actual manifestation of tension is situation-specific and is a mood state - From a psychological perspective, a mood state should have a stronger influence on behaviour than a personality trait\ Just as the effects of personality on athletic behaviour can be determined and measured, so can the effects of mood states Profile of Mood States (POMS) - Bill Morgan (1979) was one of the first to utilize the Profile of Mood States (POMS) in sport- and exercise-related research\ Noted that elite athletes exhibited a mood profile that was lower in negative moods and higher in vigor than a normative sample, and that elite athletes exhibited a more mentally healthy mood profile than less successful athletes - Assesses six transient, distinct mood states\ Original: 65 adjectives rated on a 5-point scale (0=not at all; 4=extremely)\ Time frame\ How you have been feeling during the PAST WEEK, INCLUDING TODAY - How you feel right now - Scored as 6 subscales\ Tension-anxiety\ Depression\ Anger-hostility\ Vigor-activity\ Fatigue\ Confusion-bewilderment\ Scores as total mood disturbance: add subscales and subtract vigor - When the standardized POMS scores of the elite athlete are plotted, they take the form of an iceberg, with all of the negative moods falling - Research has been very supportive of the notion that the successful athlete exhibits an iceberg profile relative to the population norm (average population)\ Terry and Lane (2000) found strong support for the notion that the athlete exhibits a mood profile that is superior to that of the population norm.\ Consistent with the mental health model, athletes exhibit lower negative mood states and a higher vigor score compared to a POMS normative sample of a similar agegroup POMS problems - Multiple time frames\ Multiple short forms are used\ There is an official Brief POMS (30 items)\ Unofficial short forms\ 11 items (no subscales)\ 37 items\ Etc.\ Variations in scoring\ Sum vs. average of item responses Mood states and achievement levels - Beedie, Terry, and Lane (2000) reported the results of a meta-analysis such studies\ Found the effect size was just.10, which is considered to be very low\ It is not possible to consistently differentiate between athletes of differing skill level based on mood states Mood states and performance outcome - In this line of research, investigators try to see whether the performance outcome of athletes of a similar skill level can be predicted based on POMS\ scores\ If I know an athlete's precompetitive mood profile, can I use it to predict how she will do in the competition?\ Results of a second meta-analysis by Beedie, Terry, and Lane (2000) shows the overall effect size for this investigation was.35, which is considered to be\ small to medium\ Differences exist based on types of sport and how performance was measured Mood states and type of sport - Effects are slightly larger for individual sports compared to team sports\ Effects are larger for short-duration sports (rowing, wrestling) compared to long-\ duration sports (e.g., basketball, volleyball) Common myths\ M Y T H: A distinct elite athlete personality profile exists\ M Y T H: People choose physical activities and remain in these activities based on their personality Lecture 4 motivation and behaviour change Chapter 3 Motivation - Is a process - It is focused on a goal - Deals with both the initiation and the continuation of activity directed at achieving a goal - Key concpets; - Direction; situations that a person seeks out, approaches or is attracted to - Intensity: how much effort - Persistence; maintaining intensity over a continuous period Approaches to understanding motivation Non-Conscious Processes\ Human behaviour is also regulated by processes that are outside of awareness\ Conscious processes: deliberate, slow, guided by beliefs and values, require cognitive processing, and are of limited capacity\ Non-conscious processes: operate quickly, without awareness, are based on feelings, and require minimal cognitive resources\ When dual processes are working in tandem, people navigate effectively through their\ environment Non-Conscious Processes\ Application\ Sport is typically dominated by conscious processes\ Once conscious processes are repeatedly linked with a behaviour, non-conscious processes emerge\ Recommendation of cue interventions are designed to train cognitive structures\ Examples: inclusion of implementation intentions (if-then statements) and mindfulness\ training Non-Conscious Processes\ Research\ People who automatically associate exercise with appearance have lower intentions to exercise\ Automatic associations are stronger if exercise images are in an outdoor setting, sport-based, and include younger adults Sport Commitment Model\ Psychological state representing desire or resolve to continue sport participation\ Success requires commitment Sport Commitment Model\ Determinants\ 1. Sport Enjoyment: Positive feelings related to sport\ 2. Involvement Alternatives: Degree to which athletes feel alternative activities are more or less desirable\ 3. Social Support: Encouragement received from others\ 4. Involvement Opportunities: Opportunities that arise through playing\ 5. Personal Investment: Personal resources devoted to sport\ 6. Social Constraints: Social expectations to stay involved Sport Commitment Model\ Research\ Involvement opportunities and sport enjoyment predict changes in commitment\ SCM determinants applicable to exercise context\ Commitment may link exercise with eating disorders\ Personal investment, involvement alternatives and involvement opportunities predict sport commitment Social Approaches to Motivation\ Behaviour influenced by:\ Modelling, social norms, and providing support\ Contexts play important role in motivation\ Nurturing relationships may enhance motivation and behaviours Research Linking Social Approaches to Motivation\ People who feel more connected to others in their physical activity environment are more likely to report higher levels of well-being\ Social interactions and relationships impact youth's physical activity sport motivation and behaviour\ Parents more likely to encourage males to be active than females\ Family influence predicts physical activity Social Influence in Practice\ Social interactions and relationships motivate participants\ Coaches can be positive and supportive\ Parents can provide resources and be models\ Parents can discuss children's sport experiences\ Provide feedback to nurture positive relationships\ Parents can promote sport and activity Lecture 5 theories and models of behaviour Health belief model Developed to answer this question: - Why do people not engage in physical activity and sports when we know that there is so much to gain from it - Postulates that health-seeking behaviour is influenced by a person's perception of a threat posed by a health problem and the value associated with actions aimed at reducing the threat. - Proposes that a person's health-related behaviour depends on their perception of four critical aspects - Perceived severity of potential illness - Perceived susceptibility to that illness - Benefits of taking preventive action - Barriers to taking that action Perceived susceptibility - Refers to a person's perception that a health problem is personally relevant Perceived severity - Action will not occur if the person perceives the severity to be high enough to have serious complications Perceived benefits - Refers to the person's belief that a given behaviour will cure the illness or help prevent it Perceived cost - Refers to the complexity, duration, and accessibility and accessibility of the treatment Modifying factors - Includes personality variables, socio-demographic factors, etc. Reliance on health as the primary driving force behind exercise behaviour Developed to predict a single instance of specific behaviour Social-ecological models - Emphasize that health promotion should focus on both intrapersonal behavioural factors and multiple-level factors that influence the specific behaviour in question - Focuses on the interrelationships between individuals and the social, physical and policy environment. Each person is significantly affected by interactions among overlapping ecosystems - Personal factors (e.g., genetics, psychological constructs) - Microsystem (e.g., facilities, encouragement from others) - Mesosystem (e.g., parental support, child's involvement at school) - Exosystem (e.g., workplace support, mass media) - Macrosystem (e.g., societal values, neighbourhood safety) - Physical environment (e.g., climate, urbanization) Individual/intrapersonal - At the center if the model - Includes personal factors that increase/decrease the likelihood that people will be active or engage in sports - Knowledge, attitudes, behaviours, beliefs, perceived barriers, motivation, enjoyment - Skills, abilities, disabilities or injuries - Age - Sex - Level of education - Socioeconomic status - Employment status - Self-efficacy Strategies that bring change at this level focus on changing people's knowledge, attitudes, behaviour and skills. - Can include education and mentoring programs - Promote fun, accessible activities - Make physical activity fashionable Interpersonal/organizational Comprises the relationships, the culture and the society with whom the person interacts Has a significant influence on physical activity and sport behaviour - family members - Peers/friends - Institutions and organizations such as schools, workplaces and community centres - Cultural background - Community norms - Socioeconomic status of the community Social environment/interpersonal Strategies that bring change at this level include: - Community education - Support groups - Peer programs - Workplace incentives - Promote physical activity and sport in school and at work - Implicate parents - Parents and teachers as models Physical environment Includes the natural environment and the built environment Can positively or negatively influence physical activity and sport behaviour - Natural factors such as weather or geography - Availability and access to facilities such as parks, playgrounds, sporting grounds, gymnasiums, walking or cycling track - Aesthetics or perceived qualities of facilities or the natural environment - Safety - Community design (connectivity of streets, density of housing) - Public transport Built environment -- provides opportunities for interventions - Create walking or biking tracks - Parks in new housing developments and ease of access to them - Wide range of infrastructure close to homes Natural environment -- has fewer opportunities - Focus on overcoming barriers to physical activity and sport within the natural environment Policy Refers to legislation, regulatory or policy-making actions that have the potential to affect physical activity and sport behaviour. Often formal legal action taken by local, provincial or federal gov. but can also be rules in settings such as schools or workplaces Policy includes: - Urban planning policies - Active transport policies - Education policies - Funding policies - Workplace policies Core principles Multiple factors influence behaviours - Efforts to change behaviour should target multiple components of the social-ecological model Environments are multidimensional and complex - Can be described in terms of actual or perceived qualities Human-environment interactions can be described at varying levels of organization - Interactions with the environment can occur at the individual, small group, organizational, community or population level The interrelationships between people and their environment are dynamic and reciprocal Limitations of the social ecological model - Environmental and policy changes can take a long time and a lot of money to implement - Simply building fitness facilities does not mean that people will automatically become more physically active - Educational and incentive programs to motivate people can be expensive and time consuming Case study -- Aiden (time permitting) - 55 years of age - 45 lbs overweight and inactive - Diagnosed with diabetes - Recently quit smoking - Has 3 teenage sons - Volunteers at the Heart & Stroke Foundation - Played sport as a teenager - Has never participated in a formal exercise program - All family members living with him are active - Wants to lose weight for his eldest son's marriage Pick two of the following models - Health belied model (HBM), social cognitive theory (SCT), transtheoretical model (TTM), and theory of planned behaviour (TPB) - According to your selected models, list what factors will be important to help Aiden start and stick with his exercise program? - Which characteristics will facilitate and hinder maintaining his exercise program? - What are some things you can do to help Aiden adhere to a program? Think about\... - HBM: perceptions of risk of health threat, severity of health threat, benefits of action, barriers to action - TPB: attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, intentions - SCT: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, physiological states, self-efficacy - TTM: what stage is Aiden in? What processes of change fit that stage? Lecture 6 Aggression and moral behaviour in sport Learning objectives - Explain two perspectives on moral behaviour and identify key factors that influence its development in sport - Define aggression and differentiate it from other\ terms, such as assertion and violence - Discuss key theories useful for understanding why people behave aggressively - Outline how some of the personal, situational, and group factors influence aggressive behaviour and the consequences of aggressive behaviour on athletes and spectators - Identify ways to reduce aggressive behaviour in sport Development of moral character 1. Structural-development perspective - Moral development = the change in reasoning patterns that are related to a person's cognitive growth and development - Moral reasoning develops and progresses into adulthood Kohlberg's 1984 three development perspective 2. Social learning perspective - Moral behaviour = the carrying out of an action that is deemed right or wrong - Learned through the processes of reinforcement and modelling - Participation in sport teaches and/or reinforces behaviours Factors influencing moral behaviour 1. Sport environment: influenced by coach 2. Motivational climate: mastery vs. performance 3. Team norms: standards or expectations that influence behaviour 4. Goal orientation: task vs. ego orientation Key definitions - Aggression: any overt verbal or physical act that is intended to psychologically or physically injure another living organism - Key points: - 1\. Behaviour (not an emotion or feeling) - 2\. Intent to harm or injure - 3\. Directed toward another living organism - 4\. Verbal or physical - Violent behaviours: an extreme act of physical aggression with no direct relationship to the competitive goals of sport - Assertive behaviour: forceful, vigorous, and legitimate actions with no intent to injure opponent Two types of aggression - Instrumental aggression: aggressive acts serving as a mean to a particular goal- such as winning, money -- in which intent to injure the opponent is involved. Designed to limit effectiveness of the opponent - Hostile aggression: aggressive acts undertaken for the intentional purpose of trying to harm or injure the victim. Bullying and hazing in sport - Bullying: imbalance of power between peers where the one who is more powerful repeatedly attacks the less powerful with the intention to harm - Hazing: any potentially humiliating, degrading, abusive, or dangerous activity expected of an individual to belong to a group, regardless of willingness to participate. Theories / Models of Causes of Aggression 1\. Psychodynamics / Instinct Theory 2\. Physiological\ 3. Frustration-Aggression Theory\ Revised Frustration-Aggression Theory\ 4. Social Learning Theory\ 5. Moral Disengagement Psychodynamics\ Humans are born with behavioural tendencies causing them to act in certain ways\ Freud believed aggressive behaviour is innate\ Purging aggression is known as catharsis\ Catharsis: the release of aggressive tendencies through socially acceptable means\ Sport as a method of catharsis Evidence for instinct theory:\ No evidence for aggressive instinct\ No evidence that "catharsis" types of behaviours decrease aggression Physiological explanations\ Aggression is physiological in nature\ Two supportive mechanisms:\ 1. Brain pathology: Research indicates aggressive behaviour is characteristic of people with brain tumours\ 2. Blood chemistry: Aggression linked to the hormone testosterone\ More prominent in animals than humans Frustration-Aggression Theory\ (Dollard et al., 1939)\ Aggression is a natural response to frustration\ Frustration \-\-\-\--\> Aggressive Drive \-\-\-- \> Aggressive Behaviour Evidence for Frustration-Aggression\ This theory has shortcomings\ Does not account for other ways in which people can cope with frustration\ Lack of support for catharsis idea\ Overall -- little evidence Revised Frustration-Aggression Theory\ Aggression can be caused by something other than frustration\ Frustration does not always lead to aggression\ But increases the likelihood of aggression by increasing arousal, anger, and other thoughts, feelings, and emotions\ Increased arousal and anger result in aggression only when socially learned cues signal the appropriateness of aggression in the situation Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1973)\ A person is neither driven by inner forces nor controlled solely by environmental influences\ People are aggressive because they have learned that aggression pays\ In other words, the use of aggressive behaviours can lead to success\ Support for this theory! Aggression, like other behaviours, is learned\ via:\ Modelling:\ Observing aggressive models and retaining tendencies\ Aggressive behaviours Learning:\ Learning by being rewarded (reinforced) or punished for one's behaviours - Concern with "role models" of aggression, and media portrayal - Rewards given to aggressive acts Moral Disengagement\ Extension of social learning theory to address moral behaviour\ Attempt to explain how people who engage in deviant behaviour (like aggression) justify their actions\ Individuals refrain from behaviours that violate their moral standards Eight mechanisms of moral disengagement 1. Moral justification 2. Euphemistic labelling 3. Advantageous comparison 4. Displacement of responsibility 5. Diffusion of responsibility 6. Distortion of consequences 7. Dehumanization 8. Attribution of blame Factors Influencing Aggression in Sport\ Personal Factors \- Gender/sex\ - Age\ - Physical size\ Retaliation\ Annoyances\ Self-presentation\ Passion / athletic identity Group Factors\ - Group/sport norms\ Role on team\ Collective efficacy of aggression\ Group cohesion Situational Factors\ Presence of others\ Frequency of competition\ Home advantage\ Point differentials Personal Factors Influencing Aggression Gender\ No significant amount of research\ In hockey, women tend to psychologically aggress by verbally taunting and provoking\ Six aggressive behaviours: protection, gaining competitive advantage, eliciting retaliation, impeding opponents, intimidation, and hitting opponents (Bloom & Vanier, 2004; Shapcott et al., 2007) Age\ Non-conclusive findings regarding age and aggression\ Desire to physically and psychologically injure opposing players peaks during middle years (see Figure 6.1) Physical size\ Size-aggression relationship exists\ Height and weight positively correlate with the number of aggressive penalties (Dorsh, 1992) Retaliation motives\ Attempt to harm opponents based on opponent's previous aggression (Brice, 1990; Sanszole, 1995)\ Most severe acts of aggression preceded by opponent's aggressive acts (Kirker et al., 2000)\ 13.9% of fouls related to unsports-person-like behaviour in basketball occurred after a personal mistake (Gómez et al., 2016) Annoyances\ Aggress because of annoyance\ Annoyances include inconsistent calls by an official or behaviours of opponents, coaches, and fans\ Officiating inconsistencies prevalent source\ Can result in aggression towards officials: soccer (Folkesson et al., 2002), baseball and softball (Rainey, 1994), and ice hockey (Ackery et al., 2004) Self-presentation\ The way individuals present themselves in social situations\ Behave aggressively to convey or maintain an image of toughness\ Aggressive impulses increase as a result of deindividuation\ Deindividuation: The process occurring when an individual feels less identifiable by others Passion/athletic identity\ Harmonious: Passion for an activity typically results in more positive experiences\ Obsessive: May lead to uncontrollable urges to engage in an activity Situational Factors Influencing Aggression Frequency of competition\ Frequency can have an impact on amount of aggression\ Occurred more in intra-divisional professional ice hockey games than in interdivisional games (Widmeyer & McGuire, 1997) Home advantage\ Home field advantage exists, with home teams winning 58.5% of decided games\ Home teams received more aggressive penalties in games they won, while visiting teams incurred more aggressive penalties when they lost\ In soccer, away teams received more foul calls and cards than home teams (Sapp et al., 2018) Point differentials\ Does not seem to be relationship between aggressive behaviour and losing situations in general\ Does seem to be some support for the occurrence of aggressive behaviours and various specific losing situations\ During close games most unsports-person-like behaviour occurred in final quarter (Gómez et al., 2016) Coaching behaviours\ In accordance with social learning theory of aggression, coach behaviours will impact athlete behaviours\ Abusive coaching related to (1) number of technical fouls, (2) decrease in player performance\ (Tepper et al., 2008) Group Factors Influencing Aggression Individual's role\ Individuals occupying a specific role on team are generally expected to behave in manner consistent with behaviours expected of that role\ Roles may include behaving aggressively Team norms\ Standards for the behaviour that is expected of members of the group\ Referred to as unwritten rules of the game\ Provide player with information necessary to know what is or is not acceptable behaviour Collective efficacy for aggression\ A team's perception of their ability to use aggressive behaviour as a tactic or strategy\ More similar among team members than between teams, suggesting it is a group perception (Dorsch, 1997) Group cohesion\ As teams become cohesive, they exhibit more aggressive behaviours (Dorsch et al., 1996) Additional Considerations re: Aggression in Sport\ Fan Aggression\ Identify with teams = increases emotional intensity\ Crowd situations\ Alcohol\ Aggression on the field associated with fan enjoyment\ Reinforcement for media to highlight, players to aggress Aggression and performance\ Some support has been found that aggression facilitates sport performance\ Other sport research:\ Aggression does NOT facilitate performance\ Aggression elevates a person's arousal level and shifts attention to non-performance issues Considerations of Aggressive Behaviour in Sport\ Injury\ 59% of injuries occurred because of an opponent's aggressive act (Katorji & Cahoon, 1992)\ Psychological harm\ Elevated arousal levels\ Emotions associated with aggressive incidents\ Penalization attempts to discourage behaviour Reducing Aggression in Sport\ Punishment and encouragement\ Teaching aggression doesn't pay would elicit behavioural change\ Punishment for aggression more meaningful than reinforcement\ Emphasize fair play and encourage/reward appropriate behaviours\ Utilize task goal orientation instead of ego goal orientation\ Positive role models Educational interventions\ Workshops and classes for stakeholders\ Teach psychological skills to help cope with emotions\ Anger management techniques (Kerr & Grange, 2016)\ Educate about anabolic steroids and consequences Behavioural modification practices\ Assume responsibility for actions\ Participate in programs designed to reduce aggressive behaviour\ Work on self-awareness and develop strategies and coping skills\ Interventions targeting perpetrator empathy can potentially reduce aggression (Stanger et al., 2017) Changes to the sporting environment\ Ban or regulate alcoholic beverages at events\ Promote athletic events as family affairs (Cox, 2002)\ Create enjoyable experiences emphasizing fair play Aggressive Behaviour in the Media\ Media exploits the desire for aggression by:\ Sensationalizing and replaying acts of aggression repeatedly\ Glorifying aggression in feature stories\ Promoting previous aggression between competitors to encourage attendance\ Tackle the media?\ Glorify assertive (not aggressive) plays and players\ Promote role models to increase acceptable behaviours Common Myths\ MYTH: Aggression in sport is a good characteristic. It is something to be encouraged in players\ MYTH: Aggression is only a physical behaviour\ MYTH: Athletes are born with certain moral behaviours Lecture 7 Sport psychology interventions Learning objectives Define goal setting and describe how it is used in a psychological skills training program\ Define imagery and describe how it is used in a psychological skills training program\ Define self talk and describe how it is used in a psychological skills training program Define various types of arousal regulation and describe how each can be used in a psychological skills training program\ Define attention and describe how attention control is used in a psychological skills training program Psychological Skills Training (PST)\ Systematic and consistent practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing performance and/or increasing enjoyment/satisfaction\ Integrates many psychological skills and methods\ Requires training over time\ Individualized/person-centred 1\. Education phase: Athletes recognizeimportance of mental skills and performance impact\ 2. Acquisition phase: Athletes acquire various psychological skills and learn to employ them\ 3. Practice phase: Implement skills in practice and competition Common Problems Implementing a PST\ Lack of conviction\ Lack of time\ Lack of sport knowledge\ Problem of PST consultants working in sports where they are not knowledgeable\ Lack of follow-up\ Do not expect results from only doing first few stages of a PST program Characteristics of Effective Consultants\ Accessible\ Establishes rapport, trust and respect\ Good listener\ Flexible, open and creative in approach\ Knowledgeable\ Likeable\ Had something concrete to offer\ Meets individual's needs Ethical Issues in PST\ Recall ethics principles from Chapter 1\ Competence\ Integrity\ Professional and scientific responsibility\ Respect for people's rights and dignity\ Concern for welfare of others\ Social responsibility Why are mental skills important?\ Strong mental skills can lead to improved:\ Focus\ Motivation\ Preparation skills\ Emotional control\ Performance Mental training is like physical training\...\ Patience\ Practice\ Persistence\ Mental skills training is a process Types of Psychological Skills\ 1. Goal setting\ 2. Imagery\ 3. Self-talk\ 4. Arousal regulation most researched\ 5. Attention control\ 6. Mindfulness Goal Setting\ Goal: target or objective that people strive to attain\ Goal setting: the practice of establishing desirable objectives for one's actions\ Most commonly used mental skill Types of goals:\ 1. Outcome\ Focus on social comparison and competitive results\ 2.Performance\ Focus on improving and attaining personal performance standards\ 3.Process\ Focus on specific behaviours in which athletes must engage throughout a performance Effectiveness of goal setting\ Goals direct attention, mobilize effort, foster persistence, and promote the development of new learning strategies (Lock & Latham, 1985)\ Enhance self-confidence and satisfaction (Moran, 2004)\ Team goal-setting is effective for enhancing cohesion levels (Senécal, Loughead, & Bloom, 2008) How to assess goal:\ Performance profiling: Flexible assessment tool to identify athletes performance-related strength and weaknesses\ 1. Identify key performance characteristics\ Could be physiological, technical, or psychological\ 2. Identify the ideal rating for each characteristics\ 1 (not important) to 10 (very important)\ 3. Assess current ability for each characteristic\ 1 (not at all like me) to 10 (completely like me)\ 4. Find discrepancy score (current -- ideal)\ 5. Prioritize targets based on discrepancy score Performance profiling example:\ 1. (a) stick handling, (b) speed, (c) strength\ 2. Ideal rating = (a) 10, (b) 8, (c) 7\ 3. Current rating = (a) 8, (b) 8, (c) 4\ 4. Discrepancy scores = (a) 2, (b) 0, (c) 3\ 5. Goal should focus first on strength, then stick handling, then speed Table 7.2 goal setting using SMART guidelines Specific Measurable Adjustable Realistic Timely Guidelines:\ Set specific goals\ Set realistic but challenging goals\ Set both short and long- term goals\ Set goals for practice and competition\ Write down goals\ Develop goal-achievement strategies\  Set performance and process goals\  Set individual and team goals\  Provide support for goals\  Evaluate goals Common mistakes:\ × Setting too many goals too soon\ × Setting goals that are too vague\ × Failure to modify unrealistic goals\ × Failure to evaluate goals Imagery\ "\...using all the senses to recreate or create experiences in the mind" (Vealey & Walter, 1993, p. 201)\ An experience that mimics real experience. It differs from dreams in that we are awake and conscious when we form an image\ Senses include: auditory, olfactory, visual, kinesthetic, touch\ The more polysensory the image, the more real it becomes\ Other terms: visualization, mental rehearsal, symbolic rehearsal, covert practice, and mental imagery Imagery 1. Internal - From your own internal vantage point 2. External - View yourself from the perspective of an outside observer Imagery ability measurement:\ Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (MIQ-R; Hall & Martin, 1997)\ Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ-2; Roberts, Callow, Hardy, Markland & Bringer, 2008)\ Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ):\ Self-report measure that asks athletes to rate how frequently they use the five functions of imagery\ Studies have employed the SIQ to examine and provide support for the applied model of imagery proposed by Martin et al. (1999) Analytic model of imagery:\ Has cognitive and motivational functions that operate on:\ General levels\ Specific levels Motivational-specific imagery:\ Involves seeing yourself winning an event, receiving a trophy or medal and being congratulated by other athletes\ May boost motivation and effort during training and facilitate goal-setting, but is unlikely on its own to lead directly to improved performance Motivational-specific imagery:\ Motivational general-mastery (MG-M): involves seeing yourself coping in difficult circumstances and mastering challenging situations\ Imagery associated with being mentally tough, in control, and self-confident\ Motivational general-arousal (MG-A): reflects feelings of relaxation, stress, anxiety or arousal in relation to sports competitions Cognitive imagery:\ Cognitive specific (CS): seeing yourself perform specific skills, such as a tennis serve, golf putt or triple-toe-loop in figure skating\ If learning and performance are the desired outcomes, evidence suggests that CS imagery will be the most effective choice\ Cognitive general (CG): involves images of strategy and game plans related to a competitive event\ E.g., employing a serve-and-volley strategy in tennis or a quick-break play in basketball Table 7.5 the five functions of imagery  A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated Recommendations for Using Imagery\ Key points:\ Incorporate into daily routine\ E.g., 5 minutes once or twice a day\ Systematic increase in difficulty\ Requires deliberate practice; more is better!\ Athletes become better 'imagers' over time\ Better imagers have more effective images Positive rather than negative\ Be in good mood\ Use imagery during times when imagery use is less frequent (i.e., off season)\ Less-skilled athletes need encouragement\ All ages can benefit  When should athletes use imagery?\ Before and after practice\ Before and after competition\ Personal time\ During breaks in action\ When recovering from injury Mental skill 3: self-talk Verbalizations or statements that are (Hardy, 2006):\ Addressed to the self, multidimensional in nature\ Have interpretive elements associated with the content of the self-statements\ Serve at least two functions:\ 1. Instructional\ 2. Motivational Functions of Self-Talk\ Instructional self-talk\ The overt or covert speech that people use for skill development, skill execution, strategy development, and general performance improvement\ Motivational self-talk\ The over or covert speech that people use for one of three\ purposes:\ 1. Mastery\ 2. Arousal\ 3. Drive The six dimesions of self-talk 1. Valence -- positive or negative 2. Verbalization -- overt or covert 3. Self-determination -- assigned or freely chosen 4. Directional interpretation -- motivating or demotivating 5. Directional intensity -- not at all or very much so 6. Frequency -- often or never Wrong Right ------------------------------------------------------ ----------------------------------------------- I can quit smoking I am in control of my habits I will lose 20 pounds I weigh a trim \_\_\_ pounds I won't worry anymore I am confident and optimistic Next time I wont be late I am prompt and efficient I will avoid negative self-talk I talk to myself, with all due respect I will not procrastinate I do it now I'm not going to let people walk all over me anymore I care enough to assert myself when necessary Assessment of Self-Talk\ The Self-Talk Grid (Hardy, Gammage, & Hall, 2001)\ Measures two dimensions:\ Valence (positive vs. negative)\ Directional interpretation (motivating vs. demotivating) The Self-Talk Use Questionnaire (Hardy, 2005)\ When athletes use self-talk\ What athletes say to themselves\ Why athletes talk to themselves (practice and competition)\ How athletes use self-talk\ Self-Talk and Gestures Rating Scale (Brewer, Rivera, & Petitpas, 1994) Arousal Regulation\ There is a relationship between arousal and performance\ Athletes use a number of techniques to regulate their arousal levels:\ To reduce arousal\ To increase arousal Techniques to reduce arousal:\ 1. Breathing: diaphragmatic increases oxygen\ 2. Progressive relaxation: involves tensing and relaxing specific muscles\ 3. Meditation: allows for deep relaxation of the mind\ 4. Biofeedback: allows athletes to use feedback from their own body signals\ 5. Autogenic training: focuses on feelings associated with limbs and muscles Autogenic training: focus on feelings associated with limbs and muscles of the body\ a) Warmth and heaviness of limbs\ b) Visualizing relaxing scenes at the same time\ c) Specific relaxing themes and self-statements\ Six stages: heaviness, warmth, regulation of cardiac activity, regulation of breathing, abdominal warmth, cooling of forehead Techniques to increase arousal 1. Pep talks 2. Bulletin boards 3. Pre-competitive workouts 4. Verbal cues 5. Breathing 6. Imagery 7. Music Attention Control\ A multidimensional construct having at least two components:\ 1. A limited resource (i.e., can't perform two tasks simultaneously)\ 2. Selectively processes specific information while ignoring other information\ Poor performance often attributed to loss of concentration or becoming distracted Association\ Focusing inward and toward bodily sensations (e.g. breathing, muscle soreness)\ Disassociation\ Focusing outward and away from the body (e.g. favorite song, scenery) Assessing/classifying selective attention\ Temporal occlusion:\ Examines the amount of time people take to select the information they need in order to respond\ Event occlusion:\ Examines which characteristics of the performance people use to make a correct response Self-report measures: measure the degree to which athletes experience cognitive interference\ Two-dimensional model (Stevinson & Biddle, 1998)\ Internal associations: task-relevant, internal focus\ External associations: task-relevant, external focus\ Internal dissociations: task-irrelevant, internal focus\ External dissociations: task-irrelevant, external focus Using Attention Control Strategies\ Attention simulation training: training in which athletes replicate the kinds of attention- demanding competition situations they find themselves in during competition\ Replicate real training environments\ Practice doing two tasks\ Practice focusing on relevant cues\ Must be sport specific Performance routines: a set of thoughts and actions carried out before a performance or skill\ Must be carefully planned and extensively practiced\ 1. Pre-event: leading up to competition\ 2. Pre-performance: in competition before a skill Attention cues: words and actions that direct athletes' attention\ 1. Verbal: typically a single word repeated at an appropriate moment (e.g., ready, high)\ 2. Visual: focus keenly on something in the surrounding area (e.g., strings of racquet)\ 3. Physical: doing an action (e.g., tapping leg, deep breath)\ Imagery can be used to control attention two ways:\ Preparation for various scenarios to ensure athletes won't be distracted by unexpected events\ Park errors to prevent dwelling on mistakes Mindfulness\ Emphasizes awareness and acceptance of internal and external states, and involves non-judgmental, present moment, and task-relevant awareness\ Associated with improved athlete mental health, reduced athletic injury, and overall improved athletic performance (e.g., Bernier et al., 2009; Gross et al., 2018; Ivarsson et al., 2015)\ Despite recent evidence, further research needed Summary\ Athletes can use a variety of mental skills to increase their performance and psychological\ states\ Mental skills require practice\ Everyone can benefit from mental skills training Common Myths about Sport\ Psychology Interventions\ MYTH: Psychological skills training is a Band-Aid solution\ MYTH: Only elite athletes can benefit from psychological skills training\ MYTH: Athletes need a mental performance consultant only when they are performing poorly Lecture 8 - Leadership in Sport Chapter 8 Leadership is the ability to get extraordinary achievement from ordinary people Leadership -- the behavioural processes through which one person influences another person or a group of others toward attaining a specific set of objectives or goals What are those goals? - Motor skill competencies - Social skills - Performance enhancement - Effective group functioning - Exercise adoption and promotion - Encouraging lifelong engagement in active lifestyle Personality and leadership Can effective leadership be explained by personality traits or profile? Initial research Early research suggested the leadership component of personality (Ogilvie, 1968; Tutko et al., 1969)\ ▷ Further research in 1960s and 1970s failed to prove link\ ▷ Digman's (1990) Five-Factor Model links personality to leadership and leadership effectiveness\ 8.1 Consider both personal and situational factors associated with effective leadership in sport and exercise settings Supporting evidence Extraversion -- trait involving level of assertiveness and an energetic approach to the world Conscientiousness -- trait comprising orderliness and striving for achievement Openness to experience -- level of curiosity, the opposite of being closed minded Agreeableness -- general compliance and a positive approach toward others Neuroticism -- feelings of tension and nervousness Current thoughts Personality traits may play a role in shaping leadership emergence and effectiveness The degree of similarity between coaches and athletes may enable the coach-athlete relationship to flourish or flounder Situational influences of leadership Do contextual and environmental factors influence leadership ability? Unofficial case study Mike Babcock - 2010 Gold medal - 2014 gold medal - 2008 Stanley cup Heralded as coach for the players so what went wrong during his time with the leafs Multidimensional model of leadership A complex model of leadership that was specifically designed to examine leadership behaviours in the context of sport and their effects in relation to athlete satisfaction and team performance Situational characteristics Include the goals of the group. The type of task, the social and cultural context of the group Leadership characteristics Include: personality, expertise, experience Member Characteristics Include: personality, gender, age, and ability relative to the task at hand Required behaviour - A set of prescriptions and proscriptions of the situation in which leadership occurs - Mostly defined by the situational characteristics - Group characteristics also partly define required behaviour Actual behaviour - How the leader actually behaves - Based on leadership characteristics - Also constrained by the situational requirements and accommodate member preferences Preferred behaviour - Preferences of the followers for specific forms of behaviour - Function of their member characteristics - Members are also aware of the situational requirements Satisfaction and performance - Misalignment among the three states of leader behaviour would diminish performance and/or satisfaction - Leader's position can become unsustainable - The dynamic nature highlighted with backward arrows indicating feedback Leadership scale for sport A scale designed to assess five leadership behaviours/dimensions Purpose - Athletes preference for specific leader behaviour - Athletes perceptions of their own coaches behaviour - Coaches perceptions of their own behaviour Leadership scale for sports (LSS) Training and instruction -- behaviour of the coach that is directed towards improving the performance of the athletes Positive feedback -- coach's behaviour of reinforcing athletes and recognizing and rewarding good performance Social support -- coaches concern for the welfare of his/her athletes creating a positive environment and interpersonal relationships with athletes Autocratic -- authority and independent decision-making of the coach Democratic -- whether the coach allows athletes to participate in important coaching decisions associated with group goals, practice methods, game tactics Take away - Some support for multidimensional model of leadership - Other aspects not comprehensively tested - Leadership scale for sport has limitations: restricted range of operationalized behaviours, omits salient behaviours Transactional and transformational leadership  Laissez-faire leadership A style of leadership that is characterized by indifference, absence and hesitancy to make any substantive decisions Transactional leadership Characterized by exchanges between the leader and person being led Dimensions - Management by exception - Passive; leaders wait for serious problems to arise and when they do weigh in with punitive action - Active; leaders monitor followers to ensure that tasks and goals have been completed as requested and take corrective action as and when necessary Contingent reward - Leaders use rewards that are contingent on the successful completion of tasks/goals Transformational leadership -- a leadership style that involves going beyond one's own self-interests with the purpose of empowering, inspiring and encouraging followers 4 key behavioural dimensions - Intellectual stimulation: foster independent thinking and challenge followers to use new perspectives - Individualized consideration: provide attention to act and support others' needs - Inspirational motivation: provide vision and display optimism for what others can accomplish - Idealized influence: act as role models and demonstrate values and beliefs Supplementing transactional leadership - Augmentation effect - Builds on the transactional base in contributing to more positive work attitudes, extra effort, and higher performance Nature and nurture - Research in behavioural genetics suggests that both leadership behaviour occupancy can be explained by genetics - Parents demonstration of transformational leadership was found to be positively related to their adolescent child's transformational leadership behaviour Training and intervention - Transformational leadership behaviours can be developed through professional development training - Can result in improvements in a range of outcomes for both the leader and followers Transformational teaching in PE - Improved beliefs and attitudes - Greater motivation - Greater enjoyment - Improved engagement - Improved involvement - Greater effort in class Social identity and leadership -- are you a "you" or a "we"? Social identity - The aspect of peoples self-concept associated with membership in the social groups to which they identify and belong Group behaviours - Social indetities that form within groups can be powerful motivators toward both individual and collective behaviours - When people feel highly interconnected with certain social groups they experience social connectedness and affilation How? - The language used by leaders - Implementing stratigies that emphasize unity - Reinforcing personal bonds and connectivity with the team Evidence - When fostering social identities, athlete leaders were able to enhance team performance - Higher relational identification with a leader results in: - Greater task mobilization - More adaptive goal setting - Higher self-efficacy beliefs Athlete leadership in sport Athlete leader A team member acting in a formal or informal capacity who guides and influences other team members toward a common objective 7 traits 1. Persistence and focus 2. Aggressive play 3. Willingness to take on smaller, less meaningful tasks 4. Practical and demographic approach to communication 5. Ability to motivate via his or her actions 6. Courage and strong convictions 7. Control of his or her emotions Functions on a team 1. Help accomplish task objectives 2. Address social needs by promoting team harmony and organizing team activities 3. Represent team at external functions 4. Motivate his/her peers Behaviours - Transformation behaviours rated highly - Transactional and autocratic behvaiour rated as less relevant - Athletes use social support, psotive feedback and democratic behaviours Who? - Highly skilled, veteran, well-liked, intrinsically motivated and centrally located individuals - Formal role is the most visible mechanism - Informal leaders who may provide support, advice and guidance tend to be the best leaders How many is too many? - Depends on the structural interdependencies of the group - Optimal proportions 1/5 for formal and 2/3 for informal - Greater access to leadership considered to be desirable Followership also matters To what extent is effective leadership dependent on the personal characteristics and behaviours of those Productive follower - A collective orientation - Active independent thinking - Transparency in relationships - Receptivity to others viewpoints Follower + leader = ? - Coach's style may work with one player but not another - Need to consider followers' characteristics alongside leader's behaviours on those being led Exercise leadership Is an exercise setting different than a sport setting? Exercise leadership - May impact participants physical and mental well-being - Leaders behaviours can be enhanced to increase class attendance and satisfaction - Enriched leadership style positively related to greater exercise enjoyment - Personal trainers have potential to support physical fitness in social settings Fostering interactions - Attentions to clients' personal and psychological needs - Encouragement, enthusiasm, optimism - Behaviours that build trust and respect - Appropriate role modelling Developing effective leadership: best practices Training, training, training Leaders should: - Articulate a compelling vision on how to operate - Respond to individuals differences and needs - Assit in viewing challenges as opportunities and approach from multiple perspectives - Discuss personal philosophy and articulate standards - Demonstrate enthusiasm and optimism Great leaders are not made -- myth or truth Effective leadership is a tangible quality that can really be assessed -- myth or truth Leadership is a top-down process concerned with exerting control, authority, and power over others. Myth or truth