Phenomenology and the Social Construction of Reality

Foundations of Sociological Thought

• Phenomenology and the social construction of reality
• Key figures include Alfred Schutz (1899-1959), Peter Berger (1929-2017), and Thomas Luckmann (1929-2016)

Readings

• Alfred Schutz, The Phenomenology of the Social World (1932/1967)
• Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality (1966)
• Peter Berger, The Sacred Canopy (1967)

Phenomenology

• Focuses on the meaning of experiences, not the inherent nature of the objects themselves.
• As stated by Alfred Schutz, "On Phenomenology and Social Relations".

Phenomenology - Root Meaning

• Derived from the Greek "phainomenon" – appearance.
• Study of what appears to the mind or in lived experience, rather than objective reality
• Has philosophical roots in thinkers like Plato and maybe Immanuel Kant.
• Became a prominent approach in 20th-century philosophy and sociology.

20th Century Phenomenology in Philosophy

• Phenomenology is a "science of the essence of consciousness" from the first person perspective (Husserl 1913)
• Our existence is defined by being-in-the-world (Heidegger 1927)
• Lived experience and perceptions are central to understanding.

Key Ideas

• People perceive the social world as their own lifeworld (Lebenswelt).
• Intersubjectivity—the idea that others share similar understandings of reality —is important
• Key example is the "woodcutter" as people know them and their role in society.
• "Biographically articulated" stocks of knowledge (Erfahrung) form the basis for understanding interactions.
• Everyday activities are rooted in pre-existing assumptions.
• Typification: Standardizing ideas about social situations.

Influences

• Symbolic interactionism emphasizes interactions with significant others.
• Verstehen (interpretive understanding) is an important element of Weber's thought
• Concepts like collective consciousness and social facts are influential from Durkheim.
• Alienation and the role of ideology are central to Marx's theory.
• Ritualization of social interaction is important from the work of Goffman and Durkheim.

Social Interactions – Alfred Schutz

• Thou-orientation: Direct, intimate experience of another person, based on "we-relationships."
• They-orientation: Indirect experience of another person, based on typified understandings their social role.

The Social World According to Schutz

• Umwelt: The world around us (directly experienced, intimate relationships)
• Mitwelt: The world shared with others (indirectly experienced, typified social roles and relationships)

Alfred Schutz's Theoretical Orientation

This section is best summarized with the graphic.

The Social Construction of Reality

• The social world is not inherently objective but socially constructed, meaning individuals shape and understand it through interacting with others.
• This contrasts with other theories which argue that it exists independently of the human individual.
• The concept is that reality is a shared meaning created through interactions, not something pre-existing.

The "Reality" of the Social World

• Common sense knowledge is essential for everyday experiences and activities.
• The social world is taken for granted and, therefore, it is easy to act accordingly.

How Is Social Order Created?

• Externalization: Individuals project their experiences into society, creating a body of shared knowledge.
• Objectivation: Shared knowledge becomes institutionalized (e.g., laws, norms, traditions).
• Reification: An object is treated as something other than the product of humans, typically something greater like a divine or natural force; the objectified reality of the social world.
• Internalization: Individuals learn and accept the social order, making it real through experiences and education.

Objectivation

• The process by which shared meanings become independent of their originary creators, becoming objective, self-sustaining entities

Habitualization

• The process by which the flexibility of human behavior is curtailed through repetition, and which is a critical component of objectification.

Institutionalization

• The process by which established routines and shared understandings are integrated into a society's structures, laws, and rules to govern behavior

Historicity and Control

• Social institutions are historical products, pre-existing individuals, and continuing to influence individuals after their creations

Reification

• Seeing social phenomena as objective processes rather than products originating in human interaction. (Thinking of "God").

Legitimation of the Social World

• Social order depends on shared understandings and beliefs (nomos).
• Social institutions are often legitimized through religious or other cultural interpretations.

Internalization

• The process by which individuals accept and integrate social norms into their worldview.
• The acceptance is typically a function of primary and secondary social experiences

Internalization (cont)

• Primary socialization is the initial process through which individuals learn fundamental societal norms.
• Secondary processes provide additional norms

Berger and Luckmann's Theoretical Orientation

Diagram.

The Social Construction of Reality Cycle

• Externalization, objectivation, reification, and internalization are part of an ongoing process.

Discussion Questions

• Phenomenology contrasted with other approaches
• Social institutions and the cycle of social construction
• Typification and reciprocal typification
• Connections between theorists like Schutz, Berger, Luckmann, Durkheim, and Goffman

Conclusion

• Social reality is experienced as subjective phenomena within contexts of lifeworlds.
• Society is a dialectic of subjective meanings and objectified and internalized social order.
• The social construction of reality is paradoxical; society is both human creation and an external force.

Explore key principles of social reality as defined by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann. This quiz examines concepts such as habitualization, institutionalization, reification, and the dialectic between subjective and objective dimensions in society. Test your understanding of how individuals and institutions shape social interactions and norms.