Research Paradigms: Positivism

Research Paradigms

• A paradigm is described as a series of interconnected beliefs regarding the social world
• These beliefs provide a structural framework for the methodical study of the world
• A paradigm provides a framework for viewing the world
• It sets the stage for a researcher

Denzin and Lincoln (2000)

• A paradigm guides the selection of research tools, participants, and philosophical assumptions
• Numerous paradigms guide research, including:
  • Positivism
  • Post-positivism
  • Constructivism-Interpretivism
  • Critical-Ideological

Research Paradigms: Positivism

• The social world is assumed to be studied similarly to the natural world
• There is a method for studying the social world that is value-free
• Explanations of a causal nature can be provided
• Positivists use the scientific method for experimentation and measurement
• They aim to discover broad principles describing variable relationships
• Scientific knowledge is thought to be objective, with subjective experiences dismissed
• Only scientific knowledge is seen as valid, certain, and accurate (Crotty, 1998, p. 29)

Basic Assumptions

• The same goals should exist, and they should aim to discover laws of explanation and prediction
• The same methodology should be used (the hypothetico-deductive method informed by theory)
• Nature is uniform in time and space, ensuring there is a identifiable reality
• Laws of nature originate from data

More Assumptions

• Large samples reduce bias in data and reveal general causes/ultimate laws of nature
• Universal laws/behaviors apply to all humans, with examples like the need to eat, drink, and sleep
• The social world is external to the researcher and can be studied with objectivity
• Research is value-free
• The researcher is an independent, objective analyst
• The social world may be understood through observation and the collection of objective data
• Simple elements make up the social world
• Observable facts are objective with reality existing independently

Positivism Research

• Research assesses how well fundamental laws fit observations and the degree to which causalities are generalized
• Positivism aims to find universal laws of human behavior
• Only one reality exists and it can be measured

Post-Positivism

• Post-positivism came about out of discontent with elements of positivism
• It acknowledges that important human experiences are unobservable (e.g., feelings, thinking)
• Post-positivists disagree with limiting study to observable aspects
• It questions researchers’ capacity to create generalizable laws about human behavior

Objectivity and Generalizability

• Post-positivists still value objectivity and generalizability
• They suggest researchers modify claims to understanding truth based on probability rather than certainty
• Positivism stresses theory verification
• Post-positivism highlights theory falsification (Lincoln & Guba, 2000, p. 107)

Guba and Lincoln (1994) on Verification-Falsification

• A million white swans can never establish with complete confidence, the proposition that all swans are white
• One black swan can completely falsify it (p. 107)

Common Emphases

• Explanation for predicting/controlling phenomena
• Research should identify cause-effect linkages
• The researcher role objective/detached
• Nomothetic and etic perspectives should be operated from
• Positivism and post-positivism are the basis of quantitative research

Constructivism-Interpretivism

• This paradigm is an alternative to positivism
• The social world cannot be understood through research principles from the natural sciences
• Constructivism has a relativist view meaning there exist multiple valid realities

Constructivists

• Constructivists think reality is mental rather than an external entity
• Meaning is hidden and requires discovery through deep reflection
• Interactive researcher-participant dialogue can stimulate reflection
• A key feature of constructivism is interaction between investigator and object

Meaning and Principles

• Interaction uncovers deeper meaning by using probes
• Key principles include the social world, and given meaning subjectively by people.
• Multiple realities exist
• Knowledge needs interpretation to understand meanings

Interpretivism

• A researcher is a part of what's being observed
• Researchers and participants together create observations from dialogue
• Aims are idiographic, understanding specific/unique individuals
• Emic refers to adopting an insider's perspective for studying the beliefs, values, and practices of the culture

Constructivist Thinking

• Central tenants include that reality is constructed by the actor
• The understanding of lived experiences is stressed from the actor's point of view
• Lived experience takes place within historical social reality
• Qualitative research methods stem from this paradigm

Interpretivism Assumptions

• Observing meanings people give to elements of the social world, and interpreting these meanings
• Social phenomena is understood in its totality, not as singular elements

Critical-Ideological Paradigm

• Critical theory serves to challenge the status quo
• It focuses on emancipation and transformation
• Constructed lived experience that is mediated by power relations occurs within social and historical contexts
• Central is the emphasis on interactions that lead to emancipation and a more just social order

Critical Theorists

• They conceptualize reality and events within power dynamics of situations
• Research is a tool to liberate oppressed groups or social classes
• There is an emphasis on researcher-participant interaction for democratic change, egalitarianism, and transformation
• “An emancipatory principle drives such research"
• It is committed to engaging oppressed groups in collective, democratic theorizing about perceptions of oppression and privilege" (Denzin (1994, 509).

Perspectives

• The perspective of this paradigm is primarily idiographic and emic

Research Philosophies

• Research paradigms consist of certain philosophical ideas that guide/direct thought and action
• Core philosophical components with influence on research paradigms include:
  • Ontology
  • Epistemology
  • Axiology
  • Methodology

Philosophies: Ontology

• Ontology: The nature of reality assumed
• Asks, "What is the nature of reality?"
• Positivism: One reality exists/can be discovered
• Assumption: The 'real world' is as seen by the observer

More Philosophies: Ontology

• Post-positivists: Researchers can discover "reality” within a realm of probability
• They argue that it can only be known imperfectly due to human limitations like the inability to observe all human aspects
• For constructivists/similar approaches reality is perceived differently by different people/groups
• People construct their own views of reality for the researcher to discover
• For the critical/ideological faction: Research is influenced by beliefs/values critical of the system in society

Philosophies: Epistemology

• This refers to the relationship between a researcher and the phenomenon being studied
• Objective, distanced position in paradigm is adopted and followed, so there is no outside influence
• The subject is independent from participants
• There is also objectivity so researchers mitigate biases by following procedures with rigor
• With constructivists, research subjects and investigators are interlocked in partnership with influence

Methodology of Interpretation

• Data collection is personal and interactive
• Interpretive researcher is subjective/engaged with his subjects
• People offer their views on situations or behaviors
• Methodology is used to build knowledge by research
• Methods include analysis and gathering data

Positivist Approach

• The positivist method is a controlled experiment
• Post-positivists use quasi experiments
• Methods include document reviews, observations, and interviews

Further Methodology

• Research is due to social construction of reality and conductiveness
• Critical/Ideological uses qualitative methods like interviews, observations, and document review
• Action based tradition engages research subjects/people in interpreting and analyzing

Methodology Inclusivity

• Varied voices are included from the margin
• Quantitative methods are employed but require more consideration to avoid results
• Methodologies can highlight distinctive quantitative and qualitative divides
• Perspectives are important when choosing a method for study

Philosophies: Axiology

• It deals with the nature of ethics
• It is the study of value, involving ethics and aesthetics
• Key question: "What is the nature of ethics?"
• Ethics are essential to all researchers, whatever their paradigm

Ethical Awareness

• Growing consciousness of guideline needs for experiments with atrocities as precedent
• Ethics in research help protect individuals
• Beliefs/expectations have no place in scientific study
• The scientific process is influenced by the values of the researcher
• Systematic approaches are used to eliminate influence

Social Justice and Research

• Biases are expected
• Focus on empowering people to transform oppression by taking stand against unequal distributions of power