Social Research Paradigms Overview
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Questions and Answers

A paradigm in science serves as a guiding vision that directs research by defining study topics and formulating testable claims.

True (A)

The two primary paradigms that have historically influenced social research are 'naturalism' and 'empiricism'.

False (B)

Positivism, when applied to studying society, assumes that social occurrences should be investigated using methods similar to those used in the natural sciences.

True (A)

According to positivist thought, social reality is primarily shaped by individual subjective interpretations.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The core concept of 'interpretivism' is the principle of dualism and the existence of universal social laws.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Neopositivism and postpositivism suggest that social theories should be articulated as absolutely certain, deterministic rules.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Postpositivism asserts that all empirical observations are direct reflections of unbiased reality and are independent from any theories.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The original positivist approach to social research emerged in the first half of the 20th century.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Interval variables are obtained exclusively by employing measurement procedures on a property.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Counting is used when the property being recorded is continual and lacks a counting unit.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

For interval variables, the distances between categories are unknown.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The values of interval variables possess ordinal features, but not cardinal ones.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Indicators are complex, general concepts that are easily translated into observational terms.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

It is generally sufficient to identify only a single indicator for a general concept.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In creating variables from concepts, only random errors can occur.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Reliability concerns the 'reproducibility' of results, showing consistency when a procedure yields stable results.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Questions can be categorized by content into four groups: basic sociographic properties, attitudes, behaviors, and opinions.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

An open question presents a range of alternative answers for the respondent to choose from.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Closed questions are generally preferred when dealing with a small number of interviewees.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The precise wording of a question has little to no impact on the responses collected.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Item batteries are sets of questions formulated differently and submitted to interviewees individually.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Face-to-face interviews are the most cost-effective method for data collection.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Telephone interviews offer the advantage of being able to use visual aids to enhance the interview process.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Self-administered questionnaires eliminate the issue of interviewer effects entirely.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Osgood's semantic differential assesses the meanings of concepts through direct subjective descriptions from interviewees.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Osgood identified four fundamental dimensions underlying judgments: evaluation, potency, activity, and intensity.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sociometric techniques, developed by Jacob Moreno, aim to assess interpersonal relations within groups.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Sociometric tests typically involve a lengthy questionnaire with numerous questions about various group member traits.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Emile Durkheim's 'On Suicide' was one of the first sociological studies based on official statistics.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Official statistics are usually gathered through surveys, similar to most data used in social research.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In official statistics, the unit of analysis is typically at the individual level, rather than geographical areas.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Data in official statistics are always collected on the aggregate level, and never at the individual level.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In unstructured interviews, the interviewer ensures that specific, predetermined questions are asked in a fixed order.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Key informants are always directly part of the phenomenon under investigation.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Collective interviews, also known as focus groups, typically involve a large number of participants to gather diverse viewpoints.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative interviews are primarily about passively recording information without any social interaction.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Data analysis in qualitative research is variable-based, similar to quantitative approaches.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative research results are typically presented using statistical data and numerical charts.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Documents used in qualitative research offer abundant, open-ended information that can be easily expanded upon.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Personal documents are typically produced for public consumption and shared widely across institutions.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Personal documents are also known as 'repressive' documents, as they convey the feelings of the individuals who create them.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Autobiographies are typically written spontaneously by a selected author during a limited time.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Diaries and letters are usually the single source of information for research projects, as they are very reliable sources.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Oral testimonies are accounts of past experiences that are recorded by individuals with a specific research aim.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A life story focuses on specific events that the narrator has witnessed, in order to understand the wider context of society.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Institutional documents are produced by institutions or individuals associated with their institutional positions.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Institutional documents usually have a limited audience and are mainly for private use.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Oral histories center on the narrator's personal growth and feelings, as they narrate their own life story to the interviewer.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Paradigm

A shared way of looking at the world that guides scientific inquiry in a specific field.

Positivism

The belief that social reality exists independently of individual thought and can be studied using methods similar to those used in the natural sciences.

Neopositivism

A branch of positivism that emphasizes the provisional nature of theories and the possibility of falsifying them.

Postpositivism

A more recent variation of positivism that acknowledges that all observation is influenced by the researcher's perspective and theories.

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Interpretivism

A paradigm that emphasizes the subjective nature of social reality and the understanding of social phenomena through the meanings that individuals attach to them.

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Ontological Question

The question of whether social reality exists independently of individual thought.

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Epistemological Question

The question of whether social reality can be known objectively.

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Methodological Question

The question of how to acquire knowledge about social reality.

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Attitude Questions

Questions that ask about a person's pre-existing views on a topic.

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Sociographic Questions

Questions that gather basic demographic information about the respondent.

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Behavior Questions

Questions that assess actual behaviors or actions.

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Open Questions

Questions that allow respondents to answer in their own words.

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Closed Questions

Questions that offer a limited number of pre-defined choices for respondents.

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Item Batteries

A collection of questions that are structured in a similar way and presented together.

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Interviewer Effects

Influences that might arise from the interviewer's presence or behavior, potentially affecting the respondent's answers.

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Telephone Interviews

A method of data collection where respondents answer questions through a phone call.

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What are Interval Variables?

Interval Variables are obtained by measuring or counting properties, with known distances between categories, allowing for arithmetic operations. Examples include height and weight.

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What are Indicators?

When a concept is too broad, we use "Indicators" - more specific, simpler concepts that relate to the general concept by meaning. Multiple Indicators may be required to capture different aspects of the concept.

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What is Operationalization?

Operationalization is the process of turning abstract concepts into measurable variables. This involves using indicators and defining how to measure or count them.

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What are Measurement Errors?

Errors in research can occur when operationalizing concepts (indication error) or measuring them (operationalization error). Errors can be systematic (bias) or random.

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What is Reliability?

Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement. A reliable measurement produces similar results when repeated using the same or equivalent tools. This ensures the findings are trustworthy.

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What is Validity?

Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement. A valid measurement truly reflects the intended concept it aims to capture. This ensures the measurement is meaningful and relevant.

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What are Indexes?

Indexes combine multiple variables to gauge a complex concept. Each variable represents a part of the larger concept, allowing for a comprehensive assessment.

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What is the Gap in Research?

The gap between a concept and its measured variable is known as measurement error. This error can occur during the theoretical phase (choosing indicators) or the empirical phase (recording data).

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Personal Documents

Personal documents written for personal use, such as diaries and letters, that provide insights into the author's experiences and perspectives.

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Autobiography

A written account of a person's entire life, written by the person themselves.

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Oral Testimony

Oral accounts collected by researchers, providing insights into personal experiences and perspectives.

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Life Story

An oral account of a person's life, focusing on individual experiences and perspectives.

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Oral History

An oral account of specific events that a person witnessed, providing insights into societal customs and events.

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Institutional Documents

Documents produced by institutions or individuals in their official roles, often intended for public consumption.

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Reactivity

The tendency for research methods to influence the results of the study.

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Collection of Autobiographies

Personal documents that are collected and analyzed together, particularly to give voice to marginalized groups.

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Osgood's Semantic Differential

A method used to study the meaning of concepts by analyzing associations between them and other concepts presented in a standardized way. It identifies three key dimensions: evaluation, potency, and activity.

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Sociometric Techniques

Sociometric techniques aim to understand and measure interpersonal relationships within groups by analyzing individual preferences and connections.

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Official Statistics

Official statistics are data collected by government agencies for various purposes, such as demographic information or social trends. They differ from other research data in terms of production, units of analysis, content, and breadth.

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How are Official Statistics Produced?

Official statistics are generated through two main methods:

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Indirect Recording

Indirect Recording: Data collected during routine administrative procedures, like birth or death certificates.

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Direct Recording

Direct Recording: Data collected by government agencies specifically for research purposes, such as population censuses.

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Units of Analysis in Official Statistics

Official Statistics are aggregated data, meaning they are analyzed at the level of geographical areas, like provinces or counties, rather than individual people.

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Durkheim's Study of Suicide

Emile Durkheim's study of suicide using official statistics demonstrated the value of official statistics in social science research. By analyzing suicide rates across countries, he developed a theory of social integration that is still relevant today.

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Unstructured Interview

An interview where the interviewer follows a pre-determined list of topics, but the specific questions and order are flexible based on the flow of the conversation.

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Non-directive Interview

A type of qualitative interview where the interviewer avoids leading the participant and aims to understand their perspectives and experiences through open-ended questions.

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Key Informant Interview

Interviews with individuals who possess specialized knowledge about a particular social phenomenon, but they are not directly involved in it.

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Focus Group

A group interview where a small number of participants discuss a topic under the guidance of a facilitator.

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Case-based Analysis

The process of analyzing qualitative data by focusing on individual cases and understanding their unique experiences within a context.

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Holistic Approach

A characteristic of qualitative research that considers all aspects of a phenomenon, recognizing the interconnectedness of various elements.

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Documents in Qualitative Research

Documents created by individuals or institutions for personal or official purposes, providing valuable insights into social phenomena.

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Limited Information in Documents

The characteristic of documents that limits their usefulness to the information they contain, as they cannot be expanded or elaborated upon.

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Study Notes

SPRM Exam Notes

  • Social and Political Research Methods course at the University of Padua.
  • This document is not sponsored or endorsed by any university.
  • Download from Chiara Cortiana ([email protected]).

Paradigms of Social Research

  • Any mature science has a paradigm, a guiding vision accepted by scientists.
  • This paradigm directs research by specifying what to study and formulating hypotheses
  • Thomas Kuhn's paradigm is a theoretical perspective:
    • Accepted by the scientific community of a discipline
    • Founded on previous knowledge within the discipline
    • Directs research via:
      • Specification and choice of phenomena to study
      • Formulation of hypotheses explaining phenomena
      • Identification of suitable empirical methods
  • Historically in social sciences, positivism and interpretivism are prominent
  • Questions of social research include:
    • Ontological (does social reality exist?)
    • Epistemological (is it knowable?)
    • Methodological (how can we acquire knowledge?)

Social and Political Data Analysis

  • Positivism emerged in the late 19th century from the success of natural science.

  • It views social reality as external and independent of individuals, using methods of natural science

  • Attributes of positivism include dualism, laws, induction and Durkheim.

  • Neo-positivist (1930-60s) and post-positivist (1960-now) paradigms:

    • Social theories based on probability, not deterministic laws.
    • The researcher's perspective influences interpretation, not objective.
    • Empirical observation is 'theory-laden'.

  • Interpretivism views social reality as subjectively interpreted by individuals.

    • Research emphasizes understanding and interpreting behaviors, not simply observation
    • The goal is to comprehend actors, their motivations, meanings in specific social contexts.

  • Differences between positivist, post-positivist and interpretivist paradigms:

  • Ontological, epistemological, and methodological perspectives.

Methodology

  • Positivism: experimental-manipulative, observer-observed detachment, mostly deductive.

  • Post-positivism: modified experimental-manipulative, observer-observed detachment, induction.

  • Interpretivism: empathetic interaction, observer-observed interaction, induction.

  • Quantitative research (Sampson and Laub): secondary data analysis, systematic method.

  • Qualitative research (Sánchez-Jankowski): participant observation, understanding motivations and contexts.

Quantitative and Qualitative Research

  • Quantitative vs qualitative research differences in planning, data collection and scope of findings.
  • Quantitative emphasizes objectivity and generalizations.
  • Qualitative emphasizes empathy and interpretations of individual experiences.

From Theory to Empirical Research

  • An iterative process: theory, hypotheses, data collection, data analysis, return to theory
  • Theory creates hypotheses, which are tested empirically.

Scope of theoretical elements

  • Theory consists of organically connected propositions regarding a phenomenon, which are more abstract than empirical reality

  • Hypotheses specify the relationship between two or more concepts and enable testing empirically.

  • The process involves:

    • Deduction: use of existing theories to define hypotheses.
    • Data collection and analysis.
      • Operationalization: translating abstract concepts into measurable variables.
    • Interpreting results, returning to theory

Variables

  • Variables are the core elements of analysis.
  • Nominal variables represent non-order based discrete states; ordinal variables are ordered discrete states and interval variables are quantitative measurements.

Scaling

  • Scaling is set of procedures to operationalize concepts.
  • Scales involve a set of questions or statements, that represent a single concept.
    • Likert scales use item analysis and item-total correlations to validate the scales.
    • Statistical analysis is important, for example to calculate Cronbach's Alpha

Surveys

  • Survey is a technique for collecting data.
    • Procedures differ via question style (open vs. closed)
    • Interviews can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. Standardized questionnaires and interviews have their own unique requirements
  • Issues such as social desirability or pseudo-opinions can be problematic.
  • Data collection is not a simple task and requires experience with the population in question and theoretical awareness.

Participant Observation

  • Researcher directly participates and observes a social group over time.
  • Different types of participation (overt vs. covert).

Qualitative Interviews

  • Qualitative interviews are conversations, structured or not, between interviewer and interviewee.
  • Different styles: structured, semi-structured, unstructured, key informants and focus groups

Documents

  • Documents give insight into social phenomena.
  • Different types of documents (personal letters, diaries, official records, etc.).

Social Network Analysis

  • Analysis of the relations between social actors, typically used to uncover patterns and structures.
  • Various methods used to analyse networks include matrices and structural properties.

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This quiz explores the primary paradigms in social research, including naturalism, empiricism, positivism, and interpretivism. It covers key concepts and historical influences shaping these paradigms. Test your understanding of how these approaches guide research and their implications for studying society.

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