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A paradigm in science serves as a guiding vision that directs research by defining study topics and formulating testable claims.
A paradigm in science serves as a guiding vision that directs research by defining study topics and formulating testable claims.
True
The two primary paradigms that have historically influenced social research are 'naturalism' and 'empiricism'.
The two primary paradigms that have historically influenced social research are 'naturalism' and 'empiricism'.
False
Positivism, when applied to studying society, assumes that social occurrences should be investigated using methods similar to those used in the natural sciences.
Positivism, when applied to studying society, assumes that social occurrences should be investigated using methods similar to those used in the natural sciences.
True
According to positivist thought, social reality is primarily shaped by individual subjective interpretations.
According to positivist thought, social reality is primarily shaped by individual subjective interpretations.
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The core concept of 'interpretivism' is the principle of dualism and the existence of universal social laws.
The core concept of 'interpretivism' is the principle of dualism and the existence of universal social laws.
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Neopositivism and postpositivism suggest that social theories should be articulated as absolutely certain, deterministic rules.
Neopositivism and postpositivism suggest that social theories should be articulated as absolutely certain, deterministic rules.
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Postpositivism asserts that all empirical observations are direct reflections of unbiased reality and are independent from any theories.
Postpositivism asserts that all empirical observations are direct reflections of unbiased reality and are independent from any theories.
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The original positivist approach to social research emerged in the first half of the 20th century.
The original positivist approach to social research emerged in the first half of the 20th century.
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Interval variables are obtained exclusively by employing measurement procedures on a property.
Interval variables are obtained exclusively by employing measurement procedures on a property.
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Counting is used when the property being recorded is continual and lacks a counting unit.
Counting is used when the property being recorded is continual and lacks a counting unit.
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For interval variables, the distances between categories are unknown.
For interval variables, the distances between categories are unknown.
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The values of interval variables possess ordinal features, but not cardinal ones.
The values of interval variables possess ordinal features, but not cardinal ones.
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Indicators are complex, general concepts that are easily translated into observational terms.
Indicators are complex, general concepts that are easily translated into observational terms.
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It is generally sufficient to identify only a single indicator for a general concept.
It is generally sufficient to identify only a single indicator for a general concept.
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In creating variables from concepts, only random errors can occur.
In creating variables from concepts, only random errors can occur.
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Reliability concerns the 'reproducibility' of results, showing consistency when a procedure yields stable results.
Reliability concerns the 'reproducibility' of results, showing consistency when a procedure yields stable results.
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Questions can be categorized by content into four groups: basic sociographic properties, attitudes, behaviors, and opinions.
Questions can be categorized by content into four groups: basic sociographic properties, attitudes, behaviors, and opinions.
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An open question presents a range of alternative answers for the respondent to choose from.
An open question presents a range of alternative answers for the respondent to choose from.
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Closed questions are generally preferred when dealing with a small number of interviewees.
Closed questions are generally preferred when dealing with a small number of interviewees.
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The precise wording of a question has little to no impact on the responses collected.
The precise wording of a question has little to no impact on the responses collected.
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Item batteries are sets of questions formulated differently and submitted to interviewees individually.
Item batteries are sets of questions formulated differently and submitted to interviewees individually.
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Face-to-face interviews are the most cost-effective method for data collection.
Face-to-face interviews are the most cost-effective method for data collection.
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Telephone interviews offer the advantage of being able to use visual aids to enhance the interview process.
Telephone interviews offer the advantage of being able to use visual aids to enhance the interview process.
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Self-administered questionnaires eliminate the issue of interviewer effects entirely.
Self-administered questionnaires eliminate the issue of interviewer effects entirely.
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Osgood's semantic differential assesses the meanings of concepts through direct subjective descriptions from interviewees.
Osgood's semantic differential assesses the meanings of concepts through direct subjective descriptions from interviewees.
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Osgood identified four fundamental dimensions underlying judgments: evaluation, potency, activity, and intensity.
Osgood identified four fundamental dimensions underlying judgments: evaluation, potency, activity, and intensity.
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Sociometric techniques, developed by Jacob Moreno, aim to assess interpersonal relations within groups.
Sociometric techniques, developed by Jacob Moreno, aim to assess interpersonal relations within groups.
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Sociometric tests typically involve a lengthy questionnaire with numerous questions about various group member traits.
Sociometric tests typically involve a lengthy questionnaire with numerous questions about various group member traits.
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Emile Durkheim's 'On Suicide' was one of the first sociological studies based on official statistics.
Emile Durkheim's 'On Suicide' was one of the first sociological studies based on official statistics.
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Official statistics are usually gathered through surveys, similar to most data used in social research.
Official statistics are usually gathered through surveys, similar to most data used in social research.
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In official statistics, the unit of analysis is typically at the individual level, rather than geographical areas.
In official statistics, the unit of analysis is typically at the individual level, rather than geographical areas.
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Data in official statistics are always collected on the aggregate level, and never at the individual level.
Data in official statistics are always collected on the aggregate level, and never at the individual level.
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In unstructured interviews, the interviewer ensures that specific, predetermined questions are asked in a fixed order.
In unstructured interviews, the interviewer ensures that specific, predetermined questions are asked in a fixed order.
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Key informants are always directly part of the phenomenon under investigation.
Key informants are always directly part of the phenomenon under investigation.
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Collective interviews, also known as focus groups, typically involve a large number of participants to gather diverse viewpoints.
Collective interviews, also known as focus groups, typically involve a large number of participants to gather diverse viewpoints.
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Qualitative interviews are primarily about passively recording information without any social interaction.
Qualitative interviews are primarily about passively recording information without any social interaction.
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Data analysis in qualitative research is variable-based, similar to quantitative approaches.
Data analysis in qualitative research is variable-based, similar to quantitative approaches.
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Qualitative research results are typically presented using statistical data and numerical charts.
Qualitative research results are typically presented using statistical data and numerical charts.
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Documents used in qualitative research offer abundant, open-ended information that can be easily expanded upon.
Documents used in qualitative research offer abundant, open-ended information that can be easily expanded upon.
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Personal documents are typically produced for public consumption and shared widely across institutions.
Personal documents are typically produced for public consumption and shared widely across institutions.
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Personal documents are also known as 'repressive' documents, as they convey the feelings of the individuals who create them.
Personal documents are also known as 'repressive' documents, as they convey the feelings of the individuals who create them.
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Autobiographies are typically written spontaneously by a selected author during a limited time.
Autobiographies are typically written spontaneously by a selected author during a limited time.
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Diaries and letters are usually the single source of information for research projects, as they are very reliable sources.
Diaries and letters are usually the single source of information for research projects, as they are very reliable sources.
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Oral testimonies are accounts of past experiences that are recorded by individuals with a specific research aim.
Oral testimonies are accounts of past experiences that are recorded by individuals with a specific research aim.
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A life story focuses on specific events that the narrator has witnessed, in order to understand the wider context of society.
A life story focuses on specific events that the narrator has witnessed, in order to understand the wider context of society.
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Institutional documents are produced by institutions or individuals associated with their institutional positions.
Institutional documents are produced by institutions or individuals associated with their institutional positions.
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Institutional documents usually have a limited audience and are mainly for private use.
Institutional documents usually have a limited audience and are mainly for private use.
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Oral histories center on the narrator's personal growth and feelings, as they narrate their own life story to the interviewer.
Oral histories center on the narrator's personal growth and feelings, as they narrate their own life story to the interviewer.
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Study Notes
SPRM Exam Notes
- Social and Political Research Methods course at the University of Padua.
- This document is not sponsored or endorsed by any university.
- Download from Chiara Cortiana ([email protected]).
Paradigms of Social Research
- Any mature science has a paradigm, a guiding vision accepted by scientists.
- This paradigm directs research by specifying what to study and formulating hypotheses
- Thomas Kuhn's paradigm is a theoretical perspective:
- Accepted by the scientific community of a discipline
- Founded on previous knowledge within the discipline
- Directs research via:
- Specification and choice of phenomena to study
- Formulation of hypotheses explaining phenomena
- Identification of suitable empirical methods
- Historically in social sciences, positivism and interpretivism are prominent
- Questions of social research include:
- Ontological (does social reality exist?)
- Epistemological (is it knowable?)
- Methodological (how can we acquire knowledge?)
Social and Political Data Analysis
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Positivism emerged in the late 19th century from the success of natural science.
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It views social reality as external and independent of individuals, using methods of natural science
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Attributes of positivism include dualism, laws, induction and Durkheim.
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Neo-positivist (1930-60s) and post-positivist (1960-now) paradigms:
- Social theories based on probability, not deterministic laws.
- The researcher's perspective influences interpretation, not objective.
- Empirical observation is 'theory-laden'.
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Interpretivism views social reality as subjectively interpreted by individuals.
- Research emphasizes understanding and interpreting behaviors, not simply observation
- The goal is to comprehend actors, their motivations, meanings in specific social contexts.
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Differences between positivist, post-positivist and interpretivist paradigms:
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Ontological, epistemological, and methodological perspectives.
Methodology
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Positivism: experimental-manipulative, observer-observed detachment, mostly deductive.
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Post-positivism: modified experimental-manipulative, observer-observed detachment, induction.
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Interpretivism: empathetic interaction, observer-observed interaction, induction.
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Quantitative research (Sampson and Laub): secondary data analysis, systematic method.
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Qualitative research (Sánchez-Jankowski): participant observation, understanding motivations and contexts.
Quantitative and Qualitative Research
- Quantitative vs qualitative research differences in planning, data collection and scope of findings.
- Quantitative emphasizes objectivity and generalizations.
- Qualitative emphasizes empathy and interpretations of individual experiences.
From Theory to Empirical Research
- An iterative process: theory, hypotheses, data collection, data analysis, return to theory
- Theory creates hypotheses, which are tested empirically.
Scope of theoretical elements
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Theory consists of organically connected propositions regarding a phenomenon, which are more abstract than empirical reality
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Hypotheses specify the relationship between two or more concepts and enable testing empirically.
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The process involves:
- Deduction: use of existing theories to define hypotheses.
- Data collection and analysis.
- Operationalization: translating abstract concepts into measurable variables.
- Interpreting results, returning to theory
Variables
- Variables are the core elements of analysis.
- Nominal variables represent non-order based discrete states; ordinal variables are ordered discrete states and interval variables are quantitative measurements.
Scaling
- Scaling is set of procedures to operationalize concepts.
- Scales involve a set of questions or statements, that represent a single concept.
- Likert scales use item analysis and item-total correlations to validate the scales.
- Statistical analysis is important, for example to calculate Cronbach's Alpha
Surveys
- Survey is a technique for collecting data.
- Procedures differ via question style (open vs. closed)
- Interviews can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. Standardized questionnaires and interviews have their own unique requirements
- Issues such as social desirability or pseudo-opinions can be problematic.
- Data collection is not a simple task and requires experience with the population in question and theoretical awareness.
Participant Observation
- Researcher directly participates and observes a social group over time.
- Different types of participation (overt vs. covert).
Qualitative Interviews
- Qualitative interviews are conversations, structured or not, between interviewer and interviewee.
- Different styles: structured, semi-structured, unstructured, key informants and focus groups
Documents
- Documents give insight into social phenomena.
- Different types of documents (personal letters, diaries, official records, etc.).
Social Network Analysis
- Analysis of the relations between social actors, typically used to uncover patterns and structures.
- Various methods used to analyse networks include matrices and structural properties.
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Description
This quiz explores the primary paradigms in social research, including naturalism, empiricism, positivism, and interpretivism. It covers key concepts and historical influences shaping these paradigms. Test your understanding of how these approaches guide research and their implications for studying society.
