Research Methods in Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What distinguishes an independent variable from a dependent variable in an experiment?

The independent variable is measured while the dependent variable is manipulated.

The independent variable remains constant while the dependent variable changes.

The independent variable is hypothesized to cause an effect on the dependent variable. (correct)

The dependent variable is the cause of changes in the independent variable.

In a between-groups experiment, what is the primary strategy used to mitigate bias?

Collecting data from a single condition.

Using the same subjects for each condition.

Observing participants without manipulating any variables.

Employing random assignment of participants. (correct)

What is a significant limitation of correlational studies compared to experimental research?

They always use a small sample size.

They cannot establish causation between variables. (correct)

They do not measure relationships between variables.

They require manipulation of the independent variable.

What does the term 'ceteris paribus' imply in an experimental context?

All other conditions remain constant while one variable is changed. Signup and view all the answers

In a within-subjects experiment, how are participants treated in relation to the independent variable?

Each participant is tested across all conditions of the independent variable. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of place cells in the brain?

They assist in tracking direction within familiar environments. Signup and view all the answers

In which direction does the information flow in the sensory-perceptual hierarchy?

From sensory receptors to perceptual centers. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the motor-control hierarchy from the sensory-perceptual hierarchy?

It controls movement and transmits decisions to muscles. Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system hierarchy is considered evolutionarily primitive?

The bottom parts of both hierarchies. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the top of the motor-control hierarchy play?

It generates executive decisions on movements. Signup and view all the answers

What does an absolute value of a correlation coefficient close to +1.00 or -1.00 indicate?

Strong correlation between two variables Signup and view all the answers

What does a correlation coefficient close to zero imply?

Variables are statistically unrelated Signup and view all the answers

Why are inferential statistics necessary?

They assess how confidently results are not due to chance Signup and view all the answers

What does a p value represent in hypothesis testing?

The probability of observed results being due to chance Signup and view all the answers

What is the typical threshold for determining statistical significance?

p < 0.05 Signup and view all the answers

What does the p statistic indicate when comparing two means?

The probability that observed differences occurred by chance Signup and view all the answers

In the context of correlational studies, what does a high p value signify?

High probability that the correlation is due to chance Signup and view all the answers

What role do inferential statistical methods play in research?

To determine the probability of chance influencing the observed results Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of sensory neurons?

To carry information from sensory organs to the central nervous system Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is responsible for integrating and synthesizing neural information?

Central nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What are neurons primarily separated by for communication?

Synapses Signup and view all the answers

How many neurons does the human brain contain approximately?

86 billion Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a nerve?

A bundle of many neurons Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of metabolic energy does the brain consume?

20% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of motor neurons in the nervous system?

To transmit signals to operate muscles and glands Signup and view all the answers

How are the central and peripheral nervous systems related?

They are parts of an integrated whole Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary structures that motor neurons act upon?

Skeletal muscles and visceral muscles Signup and view all the answers

Which division of the peripheral motor system initiates activity in skeletal muscles?

Somatic motor division Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the effects of the sympathetic division of the autonomic system?

Inhibition of digestive processes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic system?

Regenerative and energy-conserving functions Signup and view all the answers

Visceral muscles have a built-in mechanism for generating activity. What type of input do they primarily respond to?

Nonneural mechanisms Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the autonomic nervous system is true?

Its two divisions produce opposite effects on visceral muscles and glands. Signup and view all the answers

What bodily functions does the sympathetic division primarily enhance?

High energy expenditure and alertness Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures are affected by somatic motor neurons?

Skeletal muscles and bones Signup and view all the answers

What does the electroencephalogram (EEG) primarily measure?

The electrical activity of the brain Signup and view all the answers

What is an event-related potential (ERP)?

A brief change in EEG record following a stimulus Signup and view all the answers

Which imaging method involves the injection of a radioactive substance into the blood?

Positron emission tomography (PET) Signup and view all the answers

What advantage does functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have over PET scans?

It shows better spatial resolution Signup and view all the answers

What physiological change accompanies increased neural activity in the brain?

Increased blood flow Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following methods cannot depict brain activity throughout the entire brain?

Electroencephalography (EEG) Signup and view all the answers

What type of imaging method creates 3D neuroimages to show blood flow in the brain?

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Signup and view all the answers

What does blood carry that is essential for increased neural activity?

Glucose and oxygen Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Independent and Dependent Variables

Independent variable: A variable hypothesized to cause an effect on another variable.
Dependent variable: The variable that is affected. In psychology, often measures of behavior.
Experiment: A procedure where a researcher manipulates one or more independent variables, observing changes in one or more dependent variables while holding all other factors constant. Causation can be inferred due to the controlled nature of the experiment.

Types of Experiments

Within-subjects/repeated-measures experiments: Each participant is tested under all conditions of the independent variable.
Between-groups/between-subjects experiments: Participants are randomly assigned to separate groups for each condition of the independent variable. Random assignment reduces bias.

Correlational Studies

Used when experiments are impractical or unethical.
Researchers observe or measure two or more existing variables to find relationships.
Can identify relationships and make predictions, but cannot determine cause-and-effect.
Correlation coefficient: Indicates the strength of the relationship. Values close to +1.00 or -1.00 indicate a strong correlation. Values close to 0 indicate a weak or no correlation.

Inferential Statistics

Used to determine the likelihood that observed results are due to chance.
Necessary because of variability that can be attributed to chance.
Statistical significance: Inferential methods determine the probability that observed results could occur due to chance alone.
p-value: The probability of obtaining a result as extreme or more extreme than the observed result, if the independent variable had no effect. A p-value less than .05 (5%) is typically considered statistically significant.

Ethical Considerations in Research

Animal research: Must be well-cared for, and not subjected to unnecessary suffering or deprivation.
Ethical review panels (e.g., Institutional Review Boards - IRBs): Ensure ethical research practices.

Neural Coding of Behavior

Neurons: The fundamental units of the brain (86 billion). Neurons are complex computing machines and constantly active. Their collective activity creates mental experiences and controls behavior.
Communication: Neurons communicate through synapses (100 trillion).
Brain Energy Consumption: The brain consumes 20% of the body's metabolic energy.
Nervous system: Composed of the central nervous system (brain & spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (nerves).
Neuron vs. Nerve: A neuron is a single cell, a nerve is a bundle of many neurons.

Types of Neurons

Sensory neurons: Carry information from sensory organs to the central nervous system.
Motor neurons: Carry signals from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Brain Imaging Techniques

EEG (electroencephalogram): Measures electrical activity on the scalp, used to detect arousal, relaxation, and sleep stages.
ERP (event-related potential): Measures brief changes in EEG following a stimulus. Averages of ERPs at different scalp locations reveal patterns of brain activity.
PET (positron emission tomography): Injects radioactive substances to measure brain activity by blood flow.
fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging): Measures blood flow through the brain based on changes in magnetic signals produced by oxygenated (active) and deoxygenated hemoglobin. fMRI provides higher spatial resolution than PET.

Functional Organization of the Nervous System

Hierarchically organized: Sensory-perceptual hierarchy & motor-control hierarchy.
Sensory-perceptual hierarchy: Receives sensory data, analyzes it, and makes decisions. Information generally flows from sensory receptors to perceptual centers.
Motor-control hierarchy: Controls movements. Information generally flows from executive centers to motor centers. Evolutionary primitive parts are tied to muscles and sensory systems.
Motor system: Includes somatic (skeletal muscles) and autonomic (visceral muscles and glands) divisions.
- Somatic nervous system: Stimulates skeletal muscles; action potentials are required for muscle contraction.
- Autonomic nervous system: Controls visceral muscles and glands; has sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest) divisions.

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Description

Test your understanding of key concepts in research methods and experimental design in psychology. This quiz covers independent and dependent variables, bias mitigation techniques, limitations of correlational studies, and the role of various brain structures. Perfect for students in psychology courses or anyone interested in psychological research.