Questions and Answers
The variability can be controlled by statistical manipulations.
False
What is the definition of internal validity?
When an experiment shows a stable and sure functional relation between the independent and dependent variable(s).
What are the four elements related to internal validity issues?
Subject confounds, setting confounds, measurement confounds, IV confounds.
Define double-blind control.
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What does treatment integrity refer to?
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What is external validity?
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What is direct replication?
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What does social validity measure?
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Define positive reinforcement in technical terms.
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What dimensions of behavior can be affected by reinforcement?
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A reinforcer can affect the response that it follows.
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What is the independent variable?
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What does a parametric analysis seek to accomplish?
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What is baseline logic?
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Define 'prediction' and give an example.
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Define 'verification' and give an example.
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Define 'replication' and give an example.
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What are the phases in a reversal design?
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Describe the A-B-A design.
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What are sequence effects?
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When would reversal designs be inappropriate?
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What is a potential disadvantage of reversal designs?
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What characterizes alternating treatment designs?
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What is the sequence of events in multiple baseline design?
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What types of behaviors should multiple baseline design address?
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What is the minimum number of baselines recommended for proof of a functional relationship in the multiple baseline design?
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What are some advantages of the multiple baseline design?
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For the changing criterion design, what is its purpose?
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Why do analysts have concerns about traditional group designs?
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What is an artifact?
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What is a 'permanent product'?
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List at least four advantages of permanent product data.
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Describe the 3 indicators of 'trustworthy' measurement.
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Define and distinguish between direct and indirect measurement.
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Describe the difference between continuous recording and sampling recording.
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Name the three threats to measurement accuracy and reliability.
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How do we maximize the quality of observers who are taking our data?
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Describe how we assess the accuracy and reliability of data.
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Define interobserver agreement (IOA).
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List the requisites for obtaining valid IOA measures.
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Summarize the considerations in selecting, obtaining, and reporting IOA information.
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Define the terms 'data' and 'Graph'.
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Cite a minimum of four benefits of graphically displayed data.
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Define a line graph, its characteristics, and parts.
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Identify the different parts of a graph.
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Give an example of a 'multiple data path' graph, and describe how it differs from a simple line graph.
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Describe how to determine whether a measured response is improving when looking at a cumulative graph.
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What is the rationale for having a logarithmic scale?
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Define variability, level, and trend.
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Differentiate between mean level line, median level line, and split middle line of progress.
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What is experimental control, why is it important and how is it demonstrated?
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Define internal validity and confounding variables.
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What are the components of an experiment in applied behavior analysis?
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What is the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable in an experiment?
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What is the purpose of science?
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What are the three levels of understanding?
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Why is it wrong to assume correlated variables are causally related?
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Define 'functional relations'.
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List each 'attitude' (or behavior) of science.
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What is determinism?
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What is empiricism?
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Why is it important to conduct experiments on correlated variables?
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What does it mean to 'conduct' an experiment?
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What is parsimony?
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What is philosophic doubt?
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Name the three branches of Behavior Analysis.
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What is the difference between respondent and operant behavior?
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Define hypothetical constructs and give examples.
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List the terms of the '3-term contingency' and explain how it is different from Watson's S-R psychology.
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Define and describe the experimental analysis of behavior.
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Describe the difference between radical behaviorism, mentalism, and methodological behaviorism.
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List, define, and describe the 'Defining characteristics' of ABA presented by Cooper, et al.
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What is the definition of 'applied behavior analysis' offered by Cooper, et al.?
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What is the definition of 'behavior' according to Johnston and Pennypacker?
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Explain temporal locus, temporal extent, and repeatability.
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Explain the difference between behavior and response.
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Define 'stimulus' in the context of the environment.
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Explain 'respondent' behavior.
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Explain 'operant'.
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Define a contingency.
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List the three dimensions of measurement of behavior and define each.
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What is the difference between temporal dimension and repeatability dimension of behavior?
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What is a derivative measure?
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What are some devices that can be used for event recording?
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Name the advantages and potential disadvantages/considerations of event recording.
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Define Time Sampling.
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For interval recording, what is the difference between partial and whole interval?
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What is reactivity?
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What is a 'Behavioral Cusp'?
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What is 'pivotal behavior' and how is it different from a behavioral cusp?
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Study Notes
Purpose of Science
- Science aims to discover the truths of nature.
Levels of Understanding
- Three levels: description (collect and analyze observations), prediction (correlations between events), control (using findings to create change).
- Description entails creating hypotheses based on observed data.
- Prediction recognizes patterns that enable analysis of causal relationships.
- Control allows for the manipulation of variables to effect change.
Correlated Variables
- Correlation does not imply causation; must conduct experiments to determine relationships.
Functional Relations
- A functional relation occurs when changes in the independent variable produce consistent changes in the dependent variable.
- Examples: tantrums leading to increased attention and smoking increasing risk of cancer.
Attitudes of Scientists
- Determinism (lawful nature of behavior), empiricism (objective observation), experimentation (testing hypotheses), replication (consistent results), parsimony (simplest explanations first), and philosophic doubt (constant questioning of knowledge).
Determinism
- View of the world as governed by laws that lead to predictable outcomes, essential for behavior analysis.
Empiricism
- Requires objective observation and measurement of behavior over subjective interpretations.
Importance of Experiments
- Experiments clarify whether changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable or external factors.
Conducting Experiments
- Tests must isolate the dependent variable against various independent variables.
Parsimony
- Preference for simple, logical explanations before considering complex theories.
Philosophic Doubt
- Encouragement to continually question and validate scientific theories.
Branches of Behavior Analysis
- Behaviorism (philosophy), experimental analysis (researching functional relationships), and applied behavior analysis (technology for behavior modification).
Respondent vs. Operant Behavior
- Respondent behavior is involuntary and reflexive; operant behavior is learned and influenced by its consequences.
Hypothetical Constructs
- Concepts assumed but not directly measurable or observable, such as explanations for feelings or emotions.
Three-Term Contingency
- Behavior shaped by antecedents (triggers), behavior itself, and consequences (results of behavior).
Experimental Analysis of Behavior
- Focuses on behavior-environment interactions, manipulation of independent variables, and observation of learned responses.
Behavioral Theories Comparison
- Radical behaviorism includes private events; mentalism attributes behavior primarily to private events; methodological behaviorism excludes private events from scientific study.
Defining Characteristics of ABA
- Applied (social significance), Behavioral (focus on observed behavior), Analytic (functional analysis), Technological (replicable methods), Conceptually systematic (based on principles), Effective (positive change), Generality (applies beyond the initial conditions).
Definition of Applied Behavior Analysis
- Systematic application of behavioral principles to improve significant behaviors.
Definition of Behavior
- Interaction between a person and their environment that influences or changes the environment.
Temporal Aspects of Behavior
- Temporal locus: when behavior occurs; Temporal extent: duration behavior lasts; Repeatability: frequency of behavior occurrences.
Difference Between Behavior and Response
- Response refers to an isolated instance; behavior is the interaction with the environment resulting from responses.
Stimulus
- A change in energy that prompts a reaction in an individual.
Respondent Behavior Details
- Elicited by antecedents with no consequences influencing the behavior; reflexes are involuntary responses to stimuli.
Definition of Operant
- A learned response to environmental stimuli based on past consequences.
Contingency
- The relationship between independent variables and operant behavior.
Dimensions of Measurement
- Repeatability (counting behavior), temporal extent (duration), temporal locus (when behavior occurs).
Temporal vs. Repeatability
- Temporal dimensions focus on timing and duration; repeatability measures frequency of occurrences.
Derivative Measures
- Percentage and trials-to-criterion derived from behavioral data.
Event Recording Devices
- Tools like wrist counters, hand-tally devices, and pocket calculators facilitate event counting.
Advantages and Considerations of Event Recording
- Easy and user-friendly but challenged by behaviors without clear beginnings or high frequency.
Time Sampling
- A method for observing behavior during defined intervals.
Interval Recording
- Whole interval records behaviors over time while partial interval measures occurrence regardless of frequency.
Reactivity
- The influence of assessment on participant behavior, potentially altering results.
Behavioral Cusp
- Changes emerging that lead to more opportunities for learning and interaction.
Pivotal Behavior
- Skills enabling generalization across multiple situations, distinct from specific behavioral changes of a cusp.
Variable vs. Equal Interval Time Sampling
- Variable interval measures behavior occurrence variably within time frames; equal interval measures at set times.
Artifacts in Measurement
- Measurement errors that create misleading impressions of behavior existence or absence.
Permanent Product
- Lasting changes produced by behavior, observed as data.
Advantages of Permanent Product Data
- Allows for efficient measurement without direct observation, facilitates interobserver agreement, and covers complex behaviors.
Trustworthy Measurement Indicators
- Validity (relevance and accuracy of data), accuracy (true reflection of behavior), reliability (consistency of results across measures).### Measurement Accuracy and Reliability
- Accuracy refers to how closely data values match the true values of an event.
- Reliability focuses on the consistency of data, indicating that similar results can be replicated through repeated measurements.
Direct and Indirect Measurement
- Direct measurement captures the actual behavior being observed, preferred in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) for valid data.
- Indirect measurement relies on inference, suitable for private events or when direct observation isn't possible.
Continuous vs. Sampling Recording
- Continuous recording captures every instance of a target behavior, providing a comprehensive view.
- Sampling recording collects data at specified intervals, potentially missing some occurrences.
- Continuous measurement offers accuracy but demands full focus; sampling allows for flexibility but may yield less valid data.
Threats to Measurement Accuracy and Reliability
- Poorly designed measurement systems can lead to inaccuracies; a single data collection method is recommended.
- Inadequate observer training results in misrecording behaviors; training and preliminary exams can mitigate this issue.
- Unintended influences on observers, such as expectations, can skew results; using naive observers helps reduce bias.
Maximizing Observer Quality
- Training and retraining observers ensures accurate data collection and promotes understanding of measurement techniques.
Assessing Accuracy and Reliability
- Accuracy of data is determined by comparing observed values with true values; reliability increases with consistent and replicable data.
Interobserver Agreement (IOA)
- Interobserver Agreement (IOA) involves two observers independently recording the same data, crucial for establishing competence and data integrity.
- Valid IOA requires the same measurement systems, simultaneous observations, and independence among observers.
IOA Information Reporting
- IOA assessments should occur throughout a study with varying conditions; rates of 80% or higher are generally accepted.
Data and Graph Definitions
- Data: Quantified results of measurements in ABA.
- Graph: Visual representation of data relationships.
Benefits of Graphical Data Display
- Immediate visual record aids in ongoing analysis.
- Facilitates exploration of behavioral variations as they occur.
- Acts as a judgmental aid for interpreting results.
- Provides a conservative method for determining significance.
Line Graph Characteristics
- A two-dimensional space formed by intersecting perpendicular lines; points in this space indicate relationships between two variables.
Identifying Graph Components
- Abscissa: Horizontal axis, typically representing time or independent variable values.
- Ordinate: Vertical axis, representing dependent variable values.
- Condition change lines indicate shifts in the independent variable.
- Data points reflect behavior measures during observations.
Multiple Data Path Graphs
- Multiple data paths assess the effects of an intervention on various dependent variables, contrasting with simple line graphs that focus on single behaviors.
Cumulative Graph Interpretation
- The slope of the data path on a cumulative graph indicates response improvement; steeper slopes represent greater responses.
Logarithmic Scale Purpose
- Allows assessment of proportional rates of change, differing from equal-interval scales.
Key Terms: Variability, Level, Trend
- Variability: Variance in multiple behavior measures.
- Level: Average value around which behavior measures gather.
- Trend: Overall direction of data, influencing future predictions.
Mean, Median, and Split Middle Lines
- Mean Level Line: Average value of a series of measures displayed on the graph.
- Median Level Line: Most common performance value, less influenced by outliers.
- Split Middle Line: Represents overall trend, dividing data points into equal halves.
Experimental Control
- Achieved when predictable behavior changes result from systematic manipulation of the environment; essential for reliable behavior analysis.
Internal Validity and Confounding Variables
- High internal validity confirms behavioral changes arise solely from the independent variable.
- Confounding variables are uncontrolled factors suspected to influence the dependent variable.
APA Experiment Components
- Essential components include participants, behaviors, settings, measurement systems, intervention conditions, and experimental design.
Independent vs. Dependent Variables
- Independent variable: Intervention method; dependent variable: behavior being measured, influenced by the independent variable.
Parametric Analysis Goals
- Seeks to determine the differential effects of varied independent variable values on behavior.
Baseline Logic Elements
- Prediction, verification (confirming no change without intervention), and replication (repeating IV manipulations for consistent outcomes).
Prediction Definition and Importance
- Prediction involves anticipated outcomes; stable data over 3-5 points enhances prediction confidence.
Verification and Example
- Demonstrating unchanged baseline levels upon IV withdrawal confirms the intervention's effects; an increase in behavior upon return to baseline validates conclusions.
Replication Explanation
- Repeating IV manipulations shows consistent outcomes, reinforcing reliability and demonstrating repeatability in behavioral change.
Reversal Design Phases
- Involves initial baseline, introduction of intervention, followed by a return to baseline to assess the IV's impact.
Types of Reversal Designs
- A-B-A Design: Initial baseline phase, intervention phase, return to baseline, assessing reversibility in behavior changes.### A-B-A-B Design
- A-B-A-B design includes four phases: initial baseline (A), intervention (B), return to baseline (A), and second intervention (B).
- Ideal for evaluating behavior changes and treatment effects through repeated measurement.
Variations of A-B-A-B Design
- Repeated Reversals (ABABAB): Extends A-B-A-B by including multiple withdrawal and reintroduction phases to strengthen evidence of effect.
- Multiple Treatment Reversals (ABCACBC): Compares effects of two or more interventions by incorporating multiple baseline phases with varied treatments.
- Noncontingent Reinforcement Reversals: Utilizes noncontingent reinforcement as a control to assess true reinforcement effects.
- DRI/DRA Reversals: Employs differential reinforcement of incompatible or alternative behaviors to show true reinforcement effects compared to no reinforcement.
- DRO Reversals: Implements differential reinforcement of other behaviors to demonstrate reinforcement effectiveness.
- BAB Design: Begins with treatment (B) to measure effects before withdrawing to baseline (A), then reintroducing treatment (B) for a second assessment.
Sequence Effects
- Sequence effects arise when a subject's behavior is influenced by experiences from prior conditions.
- Important for ensuring internal validity by indicating whether behavior changes result from experimental manipulation or previous experiences.
Appropriate vs. Inappropriate Use of Reversal Designs
- Appropriate for decreasing undesirable behaviors, such as improper disposal of materials.
- Inappropriate for dangerous behaviors (e.g., self-injurious behaviors) due to ethical concerns about reverting to unsafe conditions.
Disadvantages of Reversal Designs
- Ethical issues in withdrawing an effective intervention.
- Irreversibility may occur; earlier behaviors may not return to baseline when the intervention is removed.
- Dangerous behaviors pose increased risk if reverted to baseline.
Alternating Treatment Designs
- Characterized by rapid manipulation of two or more treatments to measure their effects on target behavior.
- Can be implemented across daily sessions, in separate or the same-day sessions for comparison.
Assessing Experimental Control in Alternating Treatments
- Visual inspection of data paths reveals predictably distinct treatment effects.
- Lack of data overlap signifies effective treatment differentiation.
Multiple Baseline Design
- Involves simultaneous initial baseline data collection across behaviors, settings, or individuals, with sequential introduction of interventions.
- Functional relation demonstrated when behavior shifts from baseline to treatment phases.
Appropriate Behaviors for Multiple Baseline Design
- Best for behaviors that are irreversible or when it’s impractical or unethical to alternate conditions.
Minimum Number of Baselines for Functionality
- At least three baselines are recommended to observe reliable trends and inflections.
Planning Considerations for Multiple Baseline Designs
- Select independent yet similar behaviors to ensure reliable responses to applied treatment.
- Concurrent measurement allows for relevant influences to be acknowledged.
- Intervening on the most stable baseline strengthens validity.
Multiple Probe and Delayed Multiple Baseline Designs
- Multiple Probe Designs: Good for assessing skill sequences by taking intermittent measurements instead of prolonged baseline to reduce reactivity.
- Delayed Multiple Baseline Designs: Starts baseline measurements later, maintaining analysis coherence across behaviors.
Advantages and Limitations of Multiple Baseline Design
- Advantages include ethical treatment application without withdrawal and applicability to multiple behavior changes.
- Limitations include potential difficulty demonstrating experimental control and weaker conclusions than reversal designs.
Changing Criterion Design
- Evaluates gradual improvements in existing behaviors through stepwise treatment phases.
- Requires stable baseline behavior and demonstrates control by aligning behavior changes with new criteria over time.
Logic Behind Changing Criterion Design
- Stable length phases ensure reliable behavior adaptation to new performance standards.
- Confirming functional relations bolstered by the frequency of criteria adjustments and reversals to previous standards.
Concerns About Traditional Group Designs
- Group data may not reflect individual variations, obscuring true functional relationships and limiting individual analysis.
Internal Validity Defined
- Stability and certainty in demonstrating effects between independent and dependent variables.
Elements Related to Internal Validity
- Subject, setting, measurement, and IV confounds can threaten accurate interpretations of experimental results.
Definitions of Control Mechanisms
- Double-blind control: Maintains experimental integrity by keeping both subjects and observers unaware of treatment conditions.
- Treatment integrity: Ensures IV application adheres to predefined parameters.
- Treatment drift: Refers to changes in how the IV is applied over time, potentially compromising consistency.
- Procedural reliability: Verifies that implementation aligns with planned structures.
External Validity Defined
- Ensures that experimental results can generalize across different conditions, settings, and populations, in contrast to internal validity focused on within-experiment relationships.
Types of Replication
- Direct Replication: Strives for identical experimental conditions; includes intrasubject and intersubject variants.
- Systematic Replication: Alters specific experiment elements to examine reliability and external validity.
Social Validity Defined
- Encompasses the relevance and acceptance of program goals and procedures, with measurement involving consumer satisfaction and appropriateness of targeted behavior outcomes.
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Description
This quiz explores key concepts in research methods, focusing on internal and external validity, treatment integrity, and double-blind controls. Test your understanding of the elements affecting internal validity and how they influence research outcomes.