Research Methods in Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What are individual differences in the context of survey validity?

Consistency in participant demographics

Standardized scoring of responses

Differences in survey administration methods

Variations in participant responses that may threaten validity (correct)

Which of the following best describes the purpose of the hypotheses in a questionnaire?

To guide the formatting of the questionnaire

To determine the target demographic

To specify what information relationships will be investigated (correct)

To analyze existing behavior trends

What is the mediating variable in a consumer experience study?

Participants' demographic information

Consumer experiences (correct)

Consumer purchasing habits

Overall market trends

Which of the following is a critical step when designing a questionnaire?

Writing questions that target one variable each Signup and view all the answers

What is the Hawthorne effect in research studies?

Participants change their behavior due to being observed Signup and view all the answers

What should researchers check before including a question in a survey?

If respondents are likely to understand the question Signup and view all the answers

What impact does a confound effect have on a research study?

It introduces a source of bias that may distort outcomes Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is necessary for collecting valid and reliable survey data?

A diverse participant sample Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in the decision-making process regarding data collection?

Decide whether existing information is adequate Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary purpose of conducting a pretest for a questionnaire?

To identify and eliminate confusing or ambiguous questions Signup and view all the answers

In the context of experiments, what does the independent variable represent?

A variable that is manipulated to observe its effect Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of between-subjects designs?

Participants are randomly assigned to different conditions Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a probability sample?

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception regarding sample size?

Small sample sizes cannot reflect the population accurately Signup and view all the answers

What advantage does field studies have over experiments?

They reflect real-world phenomena more accurately Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sampling requires the researcher to interview a specific number of individuals in designated categories?

Quota sampling Signup and view all the answers

What is the objective of conducting a within-subjects design?

To evaluate differences in the same participants across conditions Signup and view all the answers

What is a major disadvantage of experiments compared to field studies?

Experiments typically do not reflect real-life situations Signup and view all the answers

What does selection bias refer to in research sampling?

When the sampling method excludes certain segments of the population Signup and view all the answers

Which assessment method is distinctly emphasized in the risk evaluation portion of the decision-making process?

Assessing the risk of an incorrect decision Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes online data as a method of data collection?

It allows for real-time data gathering from diverse sources Signup and view all the answers

What is social desirability bias?

The inclination to provide answers that will be viewed positively by others. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of question gives respondents the freedom to reply in their own words?

Open-ended question Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a dichotomous question?

It has only two possible responses. Signup and view all the answers

What type of scale requires respondents to specify their level of agreement to a statement?

Likert-type scale Signup and view all the answers

Why is the phrasing of survey questions critical?

Poor wording can confuse respondents and lead to inaccurate answers. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using scales in survey questions?

To quantify complex responses and measure attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential issue with using ambiguous wording in survey questions?

It can lead to skipped questions or incorrect responses. Signup and view all the answers

In a multichotomous question, respondents are expected to...

Choose the option that closely aligns with their position. Signup and view all the answers

What type of questions should be avoided to minimize bias?

Double-barreled questions Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to avoid asking about the impact in surveys?

Respondents may have varied interpretations of impact. Signup and view all the answers

What should be included when asking respondents to rate options from 1 to 5?

The representational meaning of 1 and 5. Signup and view all the answers

What is a recommended method to assess a respondent's knowledge on a subject?

Using a series of related questions and analyzing responses. Signup and view all the answers

Why is questionnaire length an important consideration?

Smaller questionnaires typically yield better response rates. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common mistake when asking respondents about their age?

Grouping ages into broad ranges. Signup and view all the answers

How can designing a questionnaire reflect the importance of the study?

By ensuring the introduction and cover letter are compelling. Signup and view all the answers

What does measurement bias refer to in the context of surveys?

Incorrect usage of scales or biased question phrasing. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Threats to Internal Validity

Longer duration of an experiment and/or increased number of participants, may lead to fatigue effects.
Individual differences among participants might affect internal validity.
The Hawthorne effect occurs when individuals change their behavior knowing they are being observed.

Confound Effect

It is important to not alter the perception of a product during an experiment, for example, changing the shape of a bottle could influence opinions about its quality.

Designing a Questionnaire

STEP 1: Information
- Determine the information needed based on the research hypotheses.
- Specify the target audience for acquiring data.
STEP 2: Administration
- Choose the method for administering the questionnaire, considering factors like accessibility and cost-effectiveness.
STEP 3: Content
- Identify the independent variable (IV), dependent variable (DV), mediating variable, and moderating variable.
- Utilize relevant variables from existing literature, especially for complex variables.
- Consult scales handbooks for measuring specific constructs: Handbook of Marketing Scales by Bearden et al. (2012).
STEP 4: Design
- Ensure the questionnaire's physical appearance is appealing and conducive to participation.
- Sequence questions logically, prioritizing the most important aspects of the study.
- Optimize questionnaire length, aiming for brevity.
STEP 5: Pretest
- Carefully review each question for clarity, ambiguity, offensiveness, and leading questions.
- Seek feedback from peers for constructive criticism and suggestions.
- Conduct a pretest with a representative sample similar to the target audience to identify potential problems.

Sampling and Biases

A sample is a subset of the population representing the larger group.
Sample size does not determine its representativeness.
Probability samples guarantee every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.
Nonprobability samples include:
- Convenience samples: Selecting readily accessible individuals.
- Quota samples: Interviewing a pre-determined number of participants from specific categories.
Selection bias occurs when the selection process systematically excludes certain segments of the population.
Non-response bias arises when individuals who decline to participate have different characteristics than the population.

Coding the Data

Coding refers to assigning numerical values to variables for analysis. It allows for easier processing and interpretation of data.

Data Collection Methods

Primary data can be obtained through:
- Field studies: Observing and measuring variables in the real world.
- Experiments: Manipulating variables to determine causality.
- Online data: Collecting data through digital platforms.

Comparing Field Studies and Experiments:

Method	Independent Variable (X)	Moderating Variable (Z)	Advantage	Disadvantage
Field Studies	Measured	Measured	Association/Correlation	Lack of Causality
Experiments	Controlled/Manipulated	Controlled/Manipulated	Causality	Lack of Reality

Types of Experiments: Between vs Within

Between-subjects design: Participants are assigned to different conditions (independent samples).
Within-subjects design: The same participants are tested across all conditions (paired samples).

Rationale for Each Design Type:

Design Type	Description
Between-subjects design	At least one control group and one experimental group, where the groups differ on a specific variable
Within-subjects design	The same participants are tested repeatedly to assess differences between conditions.

Questionnaire Design: Questions and Response Options

Open-ended questions: Allow respondents to provide free-form answers in their own words.
Multichotomous questions: Offer multiple fixed-alternative options for respondents to choose from.
Dichotomous questions: Provide two fixed-alternative options for respondents to select.
Scales: Utilize pre-defined rating scales to provide structured responses.

Scales: Likert and Osgood

Likert-type scales: Measure the level of agreement or disagreement with a statement.
Osgood-type scales: Measure the semantic differential between two opposing concepts.

Phrasing Questions Effectively:

Use simple language and avoid ambiguity.
Avoid implicit assumptions or generalizations.
Prevent double-barreled questions that combine two distinct ideas.
Be mindful of age-appropriate language.
Avoid asking for subjective impacts or rankings.

Measurement bias: Occurs when the method of data collection systematically deviates from the true value.
Social desirability bias: Respondents tend to answer questions in a way that presents a favorable image of themselves.

Decision-Making Process:

Evaluate existing information: Determine whether there is sufficient data or if additional information is required.
Collect additional information: Utilize appropriate data collection methods.
Summarize data: Organize and present the data in a clear and informative manner.
Analyze data: Use statistical methods to identify patterns and relationships.
Draw conclusions and make decisions: Based on the data analysis, make informed choices and consider the risk of potential errors.

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Description

This quiz covers important concepts related to internal validity threats, confounding effects, and questionnaire design in psychological research. It will test your understanding of various variables like independent and dependent variables, and the impact of participant behavior on research outcomes.