Public Policy and Goods

Public Policy and Goods

• Public policy determines the distribution, allocation, and enjoyment of public, common, and toll goods within a society.
• Two broad questions policymakers must consider are: who pays the costs of creating and maintaining the goods, and who receives the benefits of the goods?

Distributive Policy

• Distributive policy tends to collect payments or resources from many but concentrates direct benefits on relatively few.
• Examples of distributive policy include:
  • Highways development
  • Provision of private goods like higher education with long-term benefits
  • The Transcontinental Railroad story, where the US government chartered two private corporations to build a nationwide railroad system, providing them with resources and land grants.
  • Agricultural sector programs, such as price supports and crop insurance, to help farmers and food producers.

Regulatory Policy

• Regulatory policy features concentrated costs and diffuse benefits, with a relatively small number of groups or individuals bearing the costs, but its benefits being distributed broadly across society.
• Examples of regulatory policy include:
  • Policies designed to protect public health and safety, and the environment.
  • The Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) and the creation of government agencies like the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Redistributive Policy

• Redistributive policy redistributes resources in society from one group to another, with costs concentrated on one group and benefits concentrated on another.
• Examples of redistributive policies include:
  • Head Start (education)
  • Pell Grants (higher education)
  • Medicaid (health care)
  • Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF, income support)
  • Food programs like the Supplementary Nutritional Aid Program (SNAP)
  • Pell grants to encourage college attendance and tax credits to encourage home ownership

Social Policies

• Aim to improve the quality of life for those in need

Social Welfare Policies

• Government programs that provide for individuals who cannot or will not provide for themselves
• Typically redistributive, meaning they transfer resources from one group to another
• Means-tested, requiring beneficiaries to demonstrate low income to qualify
• Often criticized for being redistributive and potentially penalizing those who can provide for themselves

Social Security: Addressing Concerns

• Social Security provides three essential tools to address concerns: retirement benefits, disability payouts, and Supplemental Security Income.

Retirement Benefits

• American workers can claim a form of pension after completing a minimum number of years of work and reaching retirement age.
• The amount of money received is based on the worker's lifetime earnings.
• Full retirement age was originally 65, but has been increased to 67 for workers born after 1959.
• Survivors of qualifying workers, such as spouses and minor children, may also claim this income under certain circumstances.

Disability Payouts

• Disability payouts are provided to workers who become unable to work due to disability.
• To qualify, workers must demonstrate that the injury or incapacitation will last at least 12 months.

Supplemental Security Income

• Supplemental Security Income provides supplemental income to adults or children with considerable disability or to the elderly who fall below an income threshold.

Challenges Facing Social Security

• The ratio of workers paying into the program to beneficiaries receiving payments has decreased from 16.5 to 1 in 1950 to 2.8 to 1 in 2020, and is expected to fall to 2.3 to 1 by 2035.
• Demographic changes, including slower population growth and an aging population, are expected to make the program insolvent by 2033.
• Proposed plans to save the program include privatizing it, raising the retirement age, increasing payroll taxes, and reducing payouts for wealthier retirees.

Social Security Tools

• Retirement benefit is one of the three important tools of Social Security
• American workers can claim a form of pension upon reaching retirement age after completing a minimum number of years of work
• Retirement benefit is an entitlement program that guarantees benefits to a particular group, with relatively low requirements for enrollment
• Virtually everyone will eventually qualify for the plan
• The amount of money a worker receives is based loosely on their lifetime earnings

Retirement Age

• Original full retirement age was set at 65
• Full retirement age has been increased to 67 for workers born after 1959 due to changes in legislation

Additional Benefits

• Under certain circumstances, retirement income may also be claimed by the survivors of qualifying workers
• Eligible survivors include spouses and minor children, even if they themselves did not have a wage income

Social Security and Healthcare Programs

• Social Security was designed to provide cash payments to sustain elderly people and some people with disabilities.
• Medicare and Medicaid were intended to ensure access to healthcare for vulnerable populations.

Medicare Program

• Medicare is an entitlement program funded through payroll taxes.
• Its purpose is to ensure senior citizens and retirees have access to low-cost healthcare.
• Medicare provides three major forms of coverage:
  • Guaranteed insurance benefit that helps cover major hospitalization
  • Fee-based supplemental coverage for doctor visits and other health expenses
  • Prescription drug benefit

Challenges Facing Medicare

• Medicare faces long-term challenges due to demographic shifts.
• Health care costs are rising significantly faster than inflation.
• In 2019, Medicare cost the federal government approximately $796 billion.

Economic Policy

• Economic policy refers to the different strategies used by government officials to address economic problems

Types of Economic Policy

• Tax Policy
  • Government uses its power to require individuals and businesses to contribute to collective costs through taxes
  • Aimed at generating revenue for the government
• Fiscal Policy
  • Government uses its ability to tax and spend to stabilize the economy
  • Involves adjusting government expenditure and taxation levels to promote economic growth and stability
• Monetary Policy
  • Government uses its power to control the money supply by manipulating interest rates
  • Aims to regulate the money supply, inflation, and employment rates

Tax Policy Disagreement

• Keynesians and supply-siders disagree on the best forms of tax policy.

Progressive Tax System

• Keynesians prefer progressive tax systems that increase the effective tax rate as income increases.
• This policy leaves low-income earners with more money to spend, stimulating demand.
• In the US (2015), married couples filing jointly paid 10% tax on the first 18,450ofincome,1518,450 of income, 15% on the next 18,450ofincome,1556,450, and up to 39.6% on taxable income over $464,850.

Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017

• The act shifted tax brackets, reducing the highest tax rate from 39.6% to 37%.
• The lowest bracket remained at 10%.

Tax Distribution

• Top income earners pay a greater portion of the overall income tax burden.
• In 2014, 2.7% of filers who made over $250,000 paid 52% of the income tax.

Regressive Tax System

• Supply-siders prefer regressive tax systems, which lower the overall tax rate as income increases.
• This means the percentage of income paid in taxes decreases as income increases.

Excise Taxes

• Excise taxes are applied to specific goods or services.
• They have a regressive quality, as the amount of tax paid does not increase at the same rate as income.
• Examples of excise taxes include those on alcohol, tobacco, and gasoline.

Types of Taxes

• Progressive Taxes: These taxes increase as a person's income increases, meaning higher-income individuals pay a higher tax rate.
• Regressive Taxes: These taxes are applied equally to everyone, regardless of income, meaning lower-income individuals pay the same tax rate as higher-income individuals.

Types of Foreign Policy

• Foreign policy refers to official U.S. policy designed to address problems that arise between the United States and external entities beyond its borders.

Crisis Policy

• Crisis policy deals with emergency threats to U.S. national interests or values.

Strategic Policy

• Strategic policy outlines the basic U.S. stance towards another country or a particular problem.
• Example: The Biden Administration has identified China and Russia as threats to the US, and North Korea and Iran as "extremists" and potential threats to the US.

Structural Defense Policy

• Structural defense policy focuses on policies and programs related to defense spending and military bases.
• The US has approximately 750 foreign military bases spread across 80 nations.

Executive Departments

• The Department of State is responsible for overseeing matters related to foreign policy and international issues affecting the country.
• The Defense Department oversees the various elements of the U.S. armed forces, including:
  • The Army
  • The Navy
  • The Marine Corps
  • The Air Force
• The Department of Homeland Security is responsible for overseeing agencies that protect the United States from:
  • Natural threats
  • Human threats

Commander in Chief and War Powers

• The Constitution grants the President the power of Commander in Chief over the armed forces.
• Although the President cannot declare war, they can commit troops without an official declaration of war.
• This has led to Congressional outrage, as they feel their power to declare war and commit troops has been usurped by the President.

War Powers Resolution (1973)

• A law passed during the Vietnam War that limited the President's powers to commit troops without Congressional consent.
• Three main parts:

Restrictions on Presidential War Powers

• The President must get a declaration of war or specific authorization from Congress before sending troops overseas, unless the US or its armed forces are attacked.
• If the President initiates hostilities, they can only last 60 days before needing Congressional authorization to continue.
• If there is no declaration of war or specific statutory authorization within 60 days, Congress can require the President to end US participation in hostilities at any time.

Foreign Policy Approaches

• Isolationism: a foreign policy that prioritizes American self-interest, focusing on domestic problems and avoiding interference in global concerns.
• Key characteristic of Isolationism: non-intervention in global affairs, emphasizing national interests over international involvement.

Alternative Approach

• Liberal Internationalism: a foreign policy that emphasizes the need for active American engagement in shaping the global environment to ensure national safety.
• Core principle of Liberal Internationalism: willingness to intervene in global events to shape outcomes and protect American interests.

Party Identification

• Refers to the tendency of individuals to associate themselves with a particular party due to shared values, culture, policy preferences, or social network
• Serves as a major shaper of opinions, influencing partisans' perceptions of issues and candidates

Political Socialization

• The process of transmitting political attitudes and opinions to younger members of society
• Involves picking up values from agents of socialization, such as:
• Plays a significant role in shaping individuals' political views and beliefs

Socialization and Political Socialization

• Socialization occurs during childhood, shaping our beliefs and attitudes.
• Socialization involves learning from various sources about our society and community, and how to behave within it.

Political Socialization

• Political socialization is the process of learning to understand and participate in a country's political system.
• It begins at a young age, often through exposure to everyday experiences.
• Examples of early exposure to politics include:
  • Observing a parent or guardian voting.
  • Hearing politicians speak on television, the Internet, or other media.
  • Witnessing adults honoring the national flag at events.

Challenges of Public Opinion Polls

• Most public opinion polls aim to be accurate, but it's a complex task that requires careful planning and care.

Historical Examples of Polling Errors

• 1936: Literary Digest predicted Alf Landon would win the presidential election with 55.4% of the popular vote, but Franklin D. Roosevelt won with 62%.
• The error was due to a flawed survey design, where opinion cards were sent to subscribers, phone owners, and car registrants, and only some recipients responded.

Importance of Scientific Methods

• 1948: Pollsters failed to poll up to the day of the election, relying on old numbers that didn't account for a late shift in voter opinion, leading to incorrect predictions.
• 2004: John Zogby's polls didn't represent likely voters and incorrectly predicted who would vote and for whom, leading to a wrong prediction of John Kerry winning the presidency.

Lessons Learned

• Scientific methods are essential when conducting polls to ensure accuracy.
• Poll results should be reported with caution to avoid spreading misinformation.

Identifying the Desired Population

• The desired population, or group, of respondents must be identified when conducting a poll.
• For example, if the goal is to project who will win the presidency, citizens from across the United States should be interviewed.
• In election or policy matters, pollsters often interview only respondents who have a history of voting in previous elections.

Building a Random and Representative Sample

• A random sample consists of a limited number of people from the overall population, selected in such a way that each has an equal chance of being chosen.
• In the past, telephone numbers of potential respondents were arbitrarily selected from various areas to avoid regional bias.
• With the increasing use of cell phones, polls screen for zip codes and other geographic indicators to prevent regional bias.
• A representative sample consists of a group whose demographic distribution is similar to that of the overall population.

Sample Size and Accuracy

• The sample size varies based on the size of the population being interviewed and the level of accuracy the pollster wishes to reach.
• For a national poll, the sample size should be larger to produce results with relatively low error (e.g., 1,000 to 1,500 respondents).
• A larger sample size makes a poll more accurate, but increasing the number of respondents beyond a certain point does not significantly improve accuracy.

Margin of Error

• The margin of error is a number that states how far the poll results may be from the actual opinion of the total population of citizens.
• A lower margin of error is desirable because it gives a more precise picture of what people actually think or will do.
• A large margin of error is problematic, as it can result in a wide range of possible outcomes.

Evaluating Poll Quality

• A good poll should include information on the margin of error, polling dates, number of respondents, and population sampled to show scientific reliability.
• When evaluating poll results, look for the numbers, the clarity and bias of the question, the number of respondents, and the margin of error.

Interest Groups

• Also referred to as special interests, interest organizations, pressure groups, or just interests
• Defined as formal associations of individuals or organizations that attempt to influence government decision-making and/or the making of public policy

Lobbyists

• Represent interest organizations before government
• Usually compensated for their work
• Required to register with the government in which they lobby (state or federal)
• Primary goal is to influence policy

Lobbying Activity

• Most interest organizations engage in lobbying activity to achieve their objectives
• May hire a lobbyist, employ one internally, or have a member volunteer to lobby on their behalf

Lobbying Disclosure Act

• Requires registration of lobbyists representing any interest group and devoting more than 20 percent of their time to it
• Clients and lobbying firms must also register with the federal government based on similar requirements

Campaign Finance Laws

• Require disclosure of campaign contributions given to political candidates by organizations

Public Interest Groups and Collective Goods

• Public interest groups aim to promote public, or collective, goods that benefit most or all citizens.
• Collective goods are benefits, either tangible or intangible, that are produced collectively and often underfunded.
• Examples of collective goods include:
  • Electricity provision in areas where it is not profitable for private firms (e.g., Tennessee Valley Authority)
  • Public safety
  • Highway safety
  • Public education
  • Environmental protection
• Environmental protection is a collective good, as it benefits most or all citizens, and its promotion by interest groups can lead to clean air and water for everyone.

Interest Groups

• Interest groups are formed by individuals or organizations with a common interest, aiming to influence policy decisions from outside the government.
• These groups use the political system to achieve their policy goals by persuading those in power.

Types of Interest Groups

Economic Interest Groups

• Seek to influence policy for financial gain (pocketbook).
• Examples:
  • American Medical Association
  • Labor Unions
  • Chamber of Commerce

Equal Opportunity Interest Groups

• Seek to represent people based on their characteristics and fight discrimination.
• Examples:
  • Women
  • African Americans
  • Latinos
  • LGBTQ
  • The elderly

Public Interest Groups

• Seek to change policy for the benefit of everyone.
• Examples:
  • Pro-life
  • Pro-choice
  • Right to smoke marijuana

Government Interest Groups

• Governments hire lobbyists to influence other governments.
• States may lobby the federal government for funding.

Challenges in Recruiting Members

• Interest groups face difficulties in recruiting members due to the collective good they provide, which does not necessitate membership.

Types of Incentives to Overcome Collective Action Problems

Material Incentives

• Provide substantive monetary or physical benefits to group members, encouraging participation.
• Examples: money, goods, services, etc.

Solidary Incentives

• Benefits are based on people's desire to associate with like-minded individuals.
• Appeal to individuals' sense of belonging and social connection.

Purposive Incentives

• Benefits appeal to people's support of a particular issue or cause, motivating them to join.
• Focus on the purpose or goal of the interest group.

Lobbying

• Lobbying involves efforts by groups to persuade government officials to act in their interest.
• Lobbying is usually carried out by professional lobbyists.
• Professional lobbyists often have a background that provides them with inside access to the government.
• This background may include:
  • Having been former government officials themselves.
  • Having worked for government officials.
  • Being a family member of a government official.

Lobbying Regulations

• The 1995 Lobbying Disclosure Act defines who can and cannot lobby and requires lobbyists and interest groups to register with the federal government.

Expansion of Lobbying Restrictions

• The Honest Leadership and Open Government Act of 2007 increased restrictions on lobbying, including prohibiting contact between members of Congress and lobbyists who were spouses of other Congress members.

Disclosure Requirements

• The 2007 Act broadened the definition of lobbyist and requires detailed disclosure of spending on lobbying activity, including who is lobbied and what bills are of interest.

Executive Branch Regulations

• President Biden's Executive Order 13989 prohibits federal employees from accepting gifts from lobbyists and requires them to sign an ethics pledge.
• The Order also lessens the "revolving door" by disallowing lobbying for two years after leaving the administration.

State-Level Regulations

• States have their own registration requirements for lobbyists, with some defining lobbying broadly and others more narrowly.

Campaign Finance and Free Speech

• Some argue that campaign expenditures are a form of speech, a position supported by recent Supreme Court decisions.
• The Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2008) case allowed corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts of money on elections.
• The Citizens United decision overturned the soft money ban of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act.
• The Supreme Court argued that corporations and unions have free speech rights, similar to individuals, and that free speech includes campaign spending.

McCutcheon v. Federal Election Commission (2014)

• The McCutcheon decision further extended spending allowances based on the First Amendment.
• The decision struck down aggregate contribution limits, which put caps on total contributions allowed.
• The removal of these limits has contributed to an increase in groups and lobbying activities.

Influence of Interest Groups on Government

• The Federal Election Campaign Act of 1974 led to the creation of Political Action Committees (PACs).
• PACs can contribute directly to political candidates, but there are limits to the amount of money they can give.
• Super PACs, on the other hand, cannot give directly to candidates, but they are not limited in their expenditures.

Citizens United v. the FEC Ruling

• In 2010, the court ruled that Super PACs can spend unlimited sums of money on political issues that impact elections.
• The ruling was based on the idea that political spending is a form of free speech and therefore protected.

Iron Triangle

• The iron triangle represents a three-way relationship between congressional committees, interest groups, and the bureaucracy.
• This arrangement is often criticized for prioritizing the goals of interest groups over the public interest, as they can fund Congressional members.

Components of the Iron Triangle

• Interest groups: provide campaign contributions and policy information to congressional committee members.
• Congressional committee members/chair: rely on interest groups for campaign contributions and policy information, and need the agency to implement laws favorable to the interest group's view.
• Agency (bureaucracy): needs interest groups for information and congressional committees for funding and autonomy in implementing laws.

Characteristics of the Iron Triangle

• Symbiotic relationships exist between the three elements.
• It is difficult for outsiders to break into the triangle due to the close relationships between the elements.

Definition of Bureaucracy

• A bureaucracy is an administrative group of nonelected officials responsible for carrying out functions related to policies and programs.

Evolution of Bureaucracy in the United States

• Began as a small collection of individuals, but grew over time to become a major force in political affairs.

Types of Bureaucratic Organizations

Independent Agencies

• Organizations within the executive branch, created by Congress, that execute the law and are separate from departments with a presidential appointee at the top.
• Examples: FEC, SSA, NASA

Independent Regulatory Boards and Commissions

• Organizations that regulate various businesses, industries, or economic sectors with a presidential appointee at the top.
• Examples: FDA, NTSB, NLRB, SEC

Government Corporations

• Organizations that fill some commercial function that are important but not profitable enough for private industry.
• Examples: AMTRAK, USPS

Bureaucratic Problems

• Inter-government agency conflict occurs when agencies compete for budgetary funds, public support, and clientele groups.
• A Bureaucratic Culture emerges from the accepted values and procedures of an organization, leading to a culture of conformity and cover-ups.

Whistleblowers and Protection

• Whistleblowers are individuals who try to expose wrongdoings in the bureaucracy.
• Congress passed the Whistleblower Protection Act in 1989 to protect whistleblowers from punishment.
• Despite this law, whistleblowers are not always guaranteed protection.

Judicial Power in the United States

• The judicial power of the United States is vested in one Supreme Court and lower courts established by Congress.
• The Supreme Court has the highest authority in the judicial system.
• Lower courts, also known as inferior courts, are established by Congress and are subordinate to the Supreme Court.
• Judges in both the Supreme Court and lower courts hold their offices during good behavior.
• Good behavior implies that judges serve for life unless they are impeached or removed from office.
• Judges receive a compensation for their services at stated times.
• The compensation of judges cannot be diminished during their continuance in office.
• This means that judges' salaries are protected from being reduced while they are still serving.

Poll Results: Priorities of Americans

• 5,140 adults participated in the Pew Research Center survey in January 2024.

Environmental and Climate Concerns

• 63% of Democrats prioritize protecting the environment.
• 59% of Democrats prioritize dealing with climate change.
• Only 23% of Republicans prioritize protecting the environment.
• A mere 12% of Republicans prioritize dealing with climate change.

Immigration and Military Concerns

• 76% of Republicans prioritize dealing with immigration.
• 56% of Republicans prioritize strengthening the military.
• In comparison, only 39% of Democrats prioritize dealing with immigration.
• Only 23% of Democrats prioritize strengthening the military.

Economic Priorities

• Strengthening the economy is the top priority for most Americans.

2024 Presidential Debate

• A majority of likely voters who watched the first 2024 Presidential debate believed that Republican candidate Donald Trump performed the best.
• According to a 538/Ipsos poll, less than half of the debate watchers rated Trump's performance as good or excellent.
• The poll was conducted in two waves, before and after the debate, among likely voters.
• The poll found a decline in believers of President Joe Biden's mental and physical fitness to be president after the debate.
• This decline was particularly significant among Democrats.
• Despite Biden's low-rated performance, many likely voters still reported that they would consider voting for him.

Definition of Political Parties

• Political parties are groups united by a common interest that aim to achieve their objectives within the political system.

Functions of Political Parties

• Electioneering: running elections to participate in the political process.
• Governing: implementing the party's agenda after winning an election and taking office.

Role of Political Parties

• The label of a political party helps voters identify the party's views, enabling informed decision-making.

Functions of Political Parties

• Connection: Political parties provide a sense of continuity and structure to the complex system of government, which is divided into layers and branches.
• Cohesion: The presence of political parties, such as Democrats and Republicans, across all divisions of government promotes unity and cohesion.
• Voice: Even when a party loses control of a branch of government, it remains an active entity, providing a check on the party in power and offering voters an alternative option.

Primary Elections

• A primary election is an election in which candidates from each party are chosen to run in the general election, allowing voters to indicate their preference for their party's candidate.
• It's an election amongst other members of the same party, where candidates from the same party compete against each other.
• Primary elections typically take place early in an election year, with dates ranging from January to June.
• A primary election serves the purpose of narrowing down the candidates to just one candidate to run against the opposite party in the general election.
• The primary election process is used to determine a party's presidential nominee, such as the Republican or Democrat nomination for president.
• The primary election is different from a general election, where voters typically choose between candidates from different parties.
• The primary election process can be confusing for new voters, as they may not be expecting to choose either the Republican or Democrat ballot when they show up to vote.

National Nominating Convention

• National Nominating Convention is held by political parties in presidential election years.
• To become the presidential nominee for a political party, a candidate must win a majority of delegate votes at the national nominating convention.

Delegate Voting Process

• Delegates have the final say in selecting the presidential nominee based on party rules.
• Each party uses a complicated formula to determine how delegates must vote at the convention, which is based on primary election results.

Delegates

• Delegates are typically party activists or party leaders who have participated in lower conventions.
• Anyone can be a delegate by getting involved with their local political party.

Nomination of Other Offices

• Other offices that appeared on the primary ballot do not need to be approved at the national convention.
• The results are based on who got the most votes, unless a state uses a runoff election.

General Election

• Candidates who won in the primaries run against each other for office
• Voters receive one ballot with each political party candidate option for each office
• Offices on the ballot include:
  • President
  • US Senator
  • US Representatives
  • Local and state offices
• The general election is held on the first Tuesday following the first Monday in November
• The general election occurs in even-numbered years
• The election date was set in 1845 to accommodate travel, Sunday worship, and agricultural responsibilities for farmers

Interest Groups and Lobbying

• Interest groups are formal associations of individuals or organizations that attempt to influence government decision-making and public policy.
• Lobbying is the effort by groups to persuade government officials to act in accordance with their interests.
• A lobbyist represents the interest organization before the government and is usually compensated for doing so.
• The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 requires the registration of lobbyists and interest groups with the federal government.

Types of Interest Groups

• Economic Interest Groups: seek to influence policy for the benefit of their members' economic interests (e.g. American Medical Association, Labor Unions, Chamber of Commerce).
• Equal Opportunity Interest Groups: seek to represent people based on their identity and fight discrimination (e.g. Women, African Americans, Latinos, LGBTQ, the elderly).
• Public Interest Groups: seek to change policy for the benefit of everyone (e.g. Pro-life, Pro-choice, Right to smoke marijuana).
• Government Interest Groups: governments hire people to lobby other governments (e.g. states lobbying the federal government for federal funds).

How Interest Groups Influence the Government

• Providing campaign contributions and policy information to congressional committees and members.
• Participating in the policy-making process through the iron triangle (congressional committee, interest group, and bureaucracy).
• Lobbying through professional lobbyists who have access to decision-makers.

Iron Triangle

• A hypothetical arrangement among three elements: an interest group, a congressional committee member or chair, and an agency within the bureaucracy.
• Each element has a symbiotic relationship with the other two, making it difficult for those outside the triangle to break into it.

Bureaucracy

• A group of nonelected officials charged with carrying out functions connected to a series of policies and programs.
• Types of bureaucratic organizations:
  • Independent Agencies: execute the law and are separate from the departments (e.g. FEC, SSA, NASA).
  • Independent Regulatory Boards and Commissions: regulate various businesses, industries, or economic sectors (e.g. FDA, NTSB, NLRB, SEC).
  • Government Corporations: fill some commercial function that is important but not profitable enough for private industry (e.g. AMTRAK, USPS).

Problems with the Bureaucracy

• Inter-government agency conflicts: clashes between agencies as they vie for budgetary funds, public support, and clientele groups.
• Bureaucratic Culture: the accepted values and procedures of an organization leading to a culture of conform and cover up.
• Whistleblowers: individuals who come forward to expose wrongdoings in the bureaucracy.

Supreme Court

• The Constitution provides for:
  • One Supreme Court
  • Lower courts established by Congress
  • Lifetime terms (tenure) for judges
  • Salary which cannot be diminished during their continuance in office

Foreign Policy

• Official U.S. policy designed to solve problems that take place between the United States and actors outside its borders.
• Types of foreign policy:
  • Crisis policy: policy that deals with emergency threats to national interests or values.
  • Strategic policy: policy that lays out the basic U.S. stance toward another country or a particular problem.
  • Structural defense policy: policy that focuses on defense spending and military bases.

Social Policy

• Aims to improve the quality of life for those in need.
• Types of social policy:
  • Social Welfare policies: government programs that provide for those who cannot or will not provide for themselves (e.g. Social Security).
  • Social Security: an entitlement program that guarantees benefits to a particular group, and virtually everyone will eventually qualify for the plan.

Economic Policy

• Refers to the different strategies that government officials employ to solve economic problems.
• Types of economic policy:
  • Tax policy: policy in which the government uses its power to require that individuals and businesses contribute to collective costs by requiring payment of taxes.
  • Fiscal policy: policy in which the government uses its ability to tax and spend to stabilize the economy.
  • Monetary policy: policy in which the government uses its power to control the money supply by manipulating interest rates.### Distributive Policy
• Distributive policy tends to collect payments or resources from many but concentrates direct benefits on relatively few
• Examples: highways, higher education, and national parks
• Theodore Lowi argued that distributive policy works by collecting resources from many and providing benefits to a few
• The Transcontinental Railroad is an example of distributive policy in action, where the government provided land and resources to private corporations to build a railroad system

Redistributive Policy

• Redistributive policy redistributes resources in society from one group to another
• Examples: Head Start, Pell Grants, Medicaid, and food programs like SNAP
• Redistributive policy aims to transfer income and wealth from one group to another to achieve a minimal standard of living
• The wealthy and middle class pay into the federal tax base, which funds need-based programs that support low-income individuals and families

Regulatory Policy

• Regulatory policy features concentrated costs and diffuse benefits
• A relatively small number of groups or individuals bear the costs of regulatory policy, but its benefits are expected to be distributed broadly across society
• Examples: policies designed to protect public health and safety, and the environment
• Regulatory policy is most effective for controlling or protecting public or common resources

Homeland Security

• Oversees agencies charged with protecting the territory of the United States from natural and human threats
• Responsible for determining the distribution, allocation, and enjoyment of public, common, and toll goods within a society

Political Socialization

• The process by which we are trained to understand and join a country's political world
• Starts when we are very young and is influenced by many information sources, including parents, schools, and the media
• Agents of socialization, such as family, schools, and media, transmit values to younger members of society

Political Parties

• Groups bound by a common interest that seek to use the political system to attain their goals from inside the system
• Roles: electioneering, governing, connection, cohesion, and voice
• Primary elections: elections in which candidates from each party are chosen to run in the general election
• National Nominating Convention: delegates vote to officially nominate a presidential candidate for a political party

Public Opinion Polls

• Must meet certain criteria to be scientifically conducted, including identifying the desired population and building a random and representative sample
• Researchers use various methods to ensure randomness and prevent regional bias
• Polling companies employ statisticians and methodologists to conduct polls and analyze data
• Examples of polling mistakes: Literary Digest's 1936 prediction, Thomas Dewey's 1948 loss, and John Zogby's 2004 prediction### Demographic Distribution in Polls
• To accurately represent the American population, polls should survey a sample with slightly more women than men.

Sample Size in Polls

• The sample size varies based on the population being interviewed and the level of accuracy desired.
• A larger sample size is required for national polls, such as those measuring opinions on the White House's policy on climate change.
• Sample sizes can range from 500 to 1,500 respondents, depending on the organization and institution.
• Academic organizations, like the American National Election Studies, often have larger sample sizes, upwards of 2,500 respondents.

Accuracy and Margin of Error

• A larger sample size leads to a more accurate poll, as it reduces unusual responses and better represents the actual population.
• Increasing the sample size beyond a certain point does not significantly increase accuracy and is not cost-effective.
• The margin of error is a measure of how far the poll results may be from the actual opinion of the total population.
• A lower margin of error indicates a more accurate and predictive poll.

Evaluating Poll Quality

• Look for key information such as the margin of error, polling dates, number of respondents, and population sampled to assess a poll's scientific reliability.
• Consider whether the poll was recently taken, the question was clear and unbiased, and the sample size was sufficient to predict the population.
• Be cautious of polls that prioritize immediate results over random and representative samples, such as instant polling used by news networks.

Presidential and Gubernatorial Campaigns

• After nominees are clear, campaigns enter a quiet period, focusing on fundraising for the fall
• Lack of money can harm candidates' chances
• Media tracks fundraising totals during this time

Party Conventions

• Typically held between June and September
• State-level conventions earlier in the summer, national conventions later
• Last 4-5 days, with days for platform discussion and planning, nights for speeches
• Local media covers speeches at state-level conventions, national media covers national conventions

Convention Events

• Delegates cast ballots for nominees
• Delegates discuss and vote on party platforms, including state-level concerns and issues
• Party leaders and nominees give speeches, including the vice presidential nominee on the next-to-last night and the presidential candidate on the final night

Importance of Conventions

• Provide positive attention for the party nominee
• Help candidates connect with voters and party faithful
• Can lead to a "bump" in popularity for the candidate

General Election Campaign Period

• The general election campaign period takes place between mid-August and early November.
• These elections are simpler than primaries and conventions due to the limited number of major party candidates and a few minor party candidates.

Candidate Strategies

• About 50% of voters decide based on party membership, so candidates focus on winning over independent voters and visiting close-contest states.
• In 2016, both candidates visited unusual states due to shifts in the electorate:
  • Clinton visited Republican stronghold Arizona to attract Latino voters.
  • Trump focused on Democratic Rust Belt states, such as Michigan and Wisconsin, and won these states by narrow margins.
• In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, candidates adopted different approaches:
  • President Trump held large in-person rallies, ignoring CDC recommendations for social distancing.
  • Joe Biden made fewer public appearances, mostly virtual.

Debates in the General Election Season

• Debates are a crucial element of the general election season, allowing voters to assess candidates' policy answers and prior decisions.
• Debates are not limited to presidential candidates; governor and U.S. Senate candidates also participate in televised debates in some states.
• Debates provide voters with a chance to see how candidates respond to questions and handle stress.
• Modern campaign managers recognize the importance of debates due to the wide reach of television and internet streaming.

The Electoral College Process

• After the November election, the electors of the Electoral College travel to their state capitols and cast their votes in mid-December.
• Electors usually vote for the candidate who won the majority of votes in their state.
• The states forward the certificates to the U.S. Senate.

Electoral College Votes by State

• The number of Electoral College votes granted to each state equals the total number of representatives and senators that state has in the U.S. Congress.
• Washington, DC has as many electors as it would have if it were a state.

Representation in Congress

• The number of representatives in Congress may fluctuate based on state population.
• State population is determined every ten years by the U.S. Census, mandated by Article I, Section 2, of the Constitution.
• Since the Permanent Apportionment Act of 1929, the total number of representatives in Congress has been fixed at 435.

Winning the Presidency

• For the 2024 presidential election, there will be a total of 538 electors in the Electoral College.
• A majority of 270 electoral votes is required to win the presidency.

Faithless Electors

• There are instances where electors do not vote for the candidate who won the majority of votes in their state.
• In 2000, a District of Columbia elector cast a blank ballot, denying Al Gore a precious electoral vote, reportedly to protest the unequal representation of the District in the Electoral College.
• In 2004, a Minnesota elector voted for John Edwards, the vice presidential nominee, instead of the presidential nominee, and misspelled his last name.
• In the 2016 election, seven faithless electors voted against the winner of the popular vote in their states: four in Washington, two in Texas, and one in Hawaii.

Electoral College System

• In 48 states and the District of Columbia, the winner-take-all system is used, where the candidate who wins the most votes in November receives all the state's electoral votes.
• Only the electors from the winning party will vote in these states.
• In Nebraska and Maine, the electoral votes are divided: the winner of the state gets two electoral votes, and the winner of each congressional district also receives an electoral vote.

Understanding the Electoral College

• The Electoral College system was created to ensure that the president is not elected solely by popular vote, as the Framers of the Constitution did not entirely trust the people to make such a decision.
• The Framers believed that majorities can be easily swayed by charismatic demagogues, leading to emotional rather than rational decisions.

The Role of Electors

• Electors act as well-informed members of the electorate in choosing the president and vice president.
• They are intended to make informed decisions, rather than simply following popular opinion.

Representation of All States

• The Electoral College ensures that all parts of the country are involved in selecting the President of the United States.
• It keeps the interests of smaller states relevant, preventing candidates from only focusing on the most populous areas.

Promoting Compromise and Representation

• Candidates must appeal to a variety of needs, perspectives, and views from across the entire country.
• This leads to more compromise and a more representative government.

Protecting Minority Rights

• The Electoral College system protects the minority from an all too powerful majority.
• It ensures that the interests of smaller groups are not ignored or overlooked.