Psychology: Sensation and Perception

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Questions and Answers

Match the following terms with their correct definitions:

Sensation = The process of detecting stimuli from the environment Perception = How the brain organizes and interprets sensory information Sensory transduction = Converting physical stimuli into neuronal signals Sensory receptors = Specialized neurons that detect external stimuli

Match the parts of the human eye to their functions:

Cornea = Transparent outer layer where light enters Iris = Controls the size of the pupil Lens = Focuses light onto the retina Optic nerve = Transmits signals from the retina to the brain

Match the types of photoreceptors with their characteristics:

Cones = Concentrated in the fovea Rods = Do not detect color

Match the visual cues with their descriptions:

Binocular depth cues = Involves slightly different views from both eyes Monocular depth cues = Can be perceived with one eye Retinal disparity = The difference in images received by each eye Convergence = The inward movement of the eyes when focusing on close objects Signup and view all the answers

Match the components of the visual system to their roles:

Retina = Contains the photoreceptors for detecting light Photoreceptors = Rods and cones responsible for vision Fovea = Area of the retina with highest visual acuity Pupil = The hole where light enters the eye Signup and view all the answers

Match the examples with the processes they illustrate:

Sensation in vision = Light hitting the retina Perception in vision = Interpreting light as an image Low-light vision = Relying on rods Color vision = Relying on cones in daylight Signup and view all the answers

Match the definitions with the corresponding processes in vision:

Cornea function = Light enters Lens function = Focuses light Iris function = Controls pupil size Optic nerve function = Carries signals to the brain Signup and view all the answers

Match each stage of visual processing with the correct description:

Transduction = Converting stimuli into neuronal signals Sensation = Detecting physical stimuli Perception = Recognizing and interpreting sensory information Sensory receptors = Neurons that detect external stimuli Signup and view all the answers

Match the features of the eye with their respective locations:

Rods = Peripheral parts of the retina Cones = Fovea Retina = Back of the eye Pupil = Opening in the iris Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of reinforcement with its definition:

Positive reinforcement = Adding something pleasant to increase behavior Negative reinforcement = Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior Positive punishment = Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior Negative punishment = Removing something pleasant to decrease behavior Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of memory with its description:

Episodic memory = Memory of personal experiences Semantic memory = Memory of facts and general knowledge Procedural memory = Memory of skills and tasks Associative memory = Classical conditioning responses Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of interference with its effect:

Proactive interference = Old memories hinder the formation of new memories Retroactive interference = New memories hinder the recall of old memories Forgetting curve = Rapid loss of memory shortly after learning Flashbulb memories = Vivid memories formed during emotional experiences Signup and view all the answers

Match the reinforcement schedule with its characteristic:

Continuous reinforcement = Behavior is reinforced every time Intermittent reinforcement = Reinforcement given at varying intervals Fixed-interval reinforcement = Reinforcement after a set period of time Variable-ratio reinforcement = Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of memory with its associated case study:

Explicit memory = H.M. lost ability to form new explicit memories Implicit memory = Skills retained despite anterograde amnesia Flashbulb memories = Strong memories formed during stressful events Associative memory = Involves responses learned through classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

Match the term with its description related to memory:

Interference = When competing memories affect one another Consolidation = Process of stabilizing a memory after acquisition Amnesia = Loss of memory, can be retrograde or anterograde Recall = Retrieving information from memory storage Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of conditioning with its definition:

Classical conditioning = Learning through association Operant conditioning = Learning through rewards and punishments Instrumental conditioning = Learning where behavior is modified by consequences Observational learning = Learning by watching others Signup and view all the answers

Match the stage of memory with its function:

Encoding = Transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored Storage = Maintaining information over time Retrieval = Accessing stored information Consolidation = Stabilizing a memory trace after learning Signup and view all the answers

Match the wavelength characteristics with their corresponding color:

Short wavelength = Blue/Violet Medium wavelength = Green Long wavelength = Red Infrared = Not visible to the human eye Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their definitions:

Encoding = Converting input to memory Storage = Accessing stored information Retrieval = Retaining information Recall = Temporary access to information in memory Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of memory to their characteristics:

Short-term memory = Stable, lasting years/lifetime Long-term memory = Temporary, limited capacity Explicit memories = Involves conscious recall Implicit memories = Does not involve conscious recall Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts to their descriptions:

Proactive interference = New information disrupts old memories Retroactive interference = Old memories disrupt new learning Context-dependent memory = Better recall when context matches the learning environment Misinformation effect = Memory altered by misleading information Signup and view all the answers

Match the following key figures with their contributions:

Elizabeth Loftus = Studied the unreliability of eyewitness testimony H.M. = Demonstrated the role of the hippocampus in forming long-term memories Ebbinghaus = Pioneered the study of memory and forgetting curves Atkinson and Shiffrin = Developed the multi-store model of memory Signup and view all the answers

Match the following statements with their applicable area of study:

Eyewitness Memory = Unreliable due to external cues Forgetting = Natural process of information loss Memory Interference = Confusion between old and new information Memory Encoding = Initial step in processing information Signup and view all the answers

Match the following memory systems with their features:

Short-term memory = Limited capacity of 7±2 items Long-term memory = Consolidated in the hippocampus Episodic memory = Type of explicit memory relating to experiences Semantic memory = Type of explicit memory concerning facts and concepts Signup and view all the answers

Match the following visual perception concepts with their descriptions:

Relative size = Closer objects appear larger Linear perspective = Parallel lines appear to converge Ponzo illusion = Tricks depth perception using linear perspective Gestalt principles = Study of perceiving whole objects Signup and view all the answers

Match the following Gestalt principles with their explanations:

Closure = Filling in gaps to create a complete object Similarity = Grouping similar objects together Proximity = Perceiving objects that are near each other as related Good continuation = Perceiving smooth, continuous lines Signup and view all the answers

Match the following perceptual constancies with their definitions:

Size constancy = Perceiving objects as the same size despite distance Shape constancy = Maintaining shape perception from different angles Color constancy = Adjusting for changes in lighting for color perception Depth perception = Understanding spatial relationships between objects Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to learning and memory with their descriptions:

Learning = Lasting change in behavior from experience Memory = Process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information Behavioral change = Outcome of learning process Retention = Storing learned information for future use Signup and view all the answers

Match the following classical conditioning terms with their definitions:

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = Stimulus that naturally produces a response Unconditioned response (UCR) = Natural response to the UCS Conditioned stimulus (CS) = Previously neutral stimulus that elicits response Conditioned response (CR) = Learned response to the CS Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of classical conditioning with their examples:

UCS = Food in Pavlov's experiment UCR = Salivation in response to food CS = Bell after being paired with food CR = Salivation at the sound of the bell Signup and view all the answers

Match the following concepts from Gestalt psychology with their effects:

Closure = Completing missing parts to perceive whole Similarity = Identifying patterns based on common traits Proximity = Associating nearby objects as a group Good continuation = Interpreting intersecting lines as continuous Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of constancies with their applications:

Size constancy = Recognizing an object remains the same size despite distance Shape constancy = Identifying a door as rectangular from various angles Color constancy = Perceiving a white shirt under different lighting as white Brightness constancy = Maintaining perception of an object’s brightness under varied light conditions Signup and view all the answers

Match the following principles of perception with their characteristics:

Gestalt principle of Proximity = Objects grouped by closeness Gestalt principle of Closure = Completing images to see them as whole Gestalt principle of Similarity = Grouping similar features together Gestalt principle of Good continuation = Following paths formed by lines Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of the auditory system to their functions:

Pinna = Collects sound waves Cochlea = Transduces sound into neural signals Ossicles = Amplify sound vibrations Basilar membrane = Moves in response to sound vibrations Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms related to psychophysics with their definitions:

Absolute threshold = Minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time Subliminal perception = Processing stimuli below conscious detection Gestalt psychology = Perception of whole objects, not just parts Grouping principle - Similarity = Objects that are similar are grouped together Signup and view all the answers

Match the different types of reinforcement schedules in operant conditioning:

Fixed ratio = Reward after a set number of responses Variable ratio = Reward after an unpredictable number of responses Fixed interval = Reward after a set time period Variable interval = Reward after an unpredictable amount of time Signup and view all the answers

Match the following sensory receptors to their corresponding sensations:

Pressure-sensitive receptors = Detect touch and pressure Thermoreceptors = Detect temperature changes Nociceptors = Detect pain Hair cells = Convert sound vibrations to neural signals Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their related concepts in classical conditioning:

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) = Initially neutral stimulus that elicits a response after conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) = Stimulus that naturally triggers a response Conditioned Response (CR) = Learned response to the conditioned stimulus Extinction = Diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS Signup and view all the answers

Match the following aspects of the somatosensory system to their features:

Somatosensory cortex = Mapped sensory input representation Homunculus = Illustration of sensory input distribution across body parts Pressure = Detected by pressure-sensitive receptors Vibration = Detected by specialized mechanoreceptors Signup and view all the answers

Match the following classical conditioning phenomena with their descriptions:

Spontaneous recovery = Reappearance of the CR after extinction Real-World Classical Conditioning = Explains preferences and emotional reactions Aversive conditioning = Pairing a negative experience with a stimulus to create an aversion Extinction = Reduction of the CR when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS Signup and view all the answers

Match the following components of cognitive learning to their characteristics:

Latent learning = Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement Cognitive maps = Mental representation of physical locations Observational learning = Learning by watching others Insight learning = Sudden realization of a problem’s solution Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of psychophysical principles to their characteristics:

Similarity = Grouping items that are similar in some way Proximity = Grouping items that are close together Continuity = Perceiving lines as smooth and continuous Closure = Filling in gaps to create a complete object Signup and view all the answers

Match the following sounds characteristics with their descriptions:

Frequency (Hz) = Determines the pitch of the sound Amplitude (dB) = Determines the loudness of the sound Sound waves = Created by vibrating objects Transduction = Conversion of sound waves into neural signals Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Sensation and Perception

Sensation is the process of detecting stimuli from the environment using sensory receptors and the nervous system.
Perception is the brain's interpretation of sensory information, making it meaningful and allowing us to recognize objects, events, and patterns.
Sensory receptors are specialized neurons that detect external stimuli.
Sensory transduction is the conversion of physical stimuli into chemical energy (neural signals), the first step in sensation.
Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation, with wavelengths between 380 nm and 760 nm being visible to humans.
The human eye has several key parts:
- Cornea: Transparent outer layer where light enters.
- Iris: Muscular ring controlling pupil size.
- Pupil: Hole where light enters.
- Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.
- Retina: Contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) responsible for detecting light.
- Optic nerve: Transmits signals from the retina to the brain.
Cones: Photoreceptors responsible for detailed, color vision, best in daylight, concentrated in the fovea, the area with the highest visual acuity.
Rods: More numerous, responsible for vision in low-light conditions, located peripherally, do not detect color.
Binocular depth cues: Relies on retinal disparity (slightly different views from both eyes) and convergence (eyes moving inward when focusing on close objects).
Monocular depth cues: Useful for distant objects, including cues like relative size (closer objects appear larger) and linear perspective (parallel lines converging as they get farther away).
Gestalt psychology emphasizes perceiving whole objects rather than individual parts.
Gestalt principles:
- Closure: Filling in gaps to create a complete object.
- Similarity: Grouping similar objects together.
- Proximity: Perceiving objects near each other as related.
- Good continuation: Perceiving smooth, continuous lines.
Size constancy: Perceiving objects as the same size despite changes in retinal image size due to distance.
Shape constancy: Perceiving objects as maintaining their shape even when viewed from different angles.
Color constancy: The brain adjusts for lighting changes so we perceive colors consistently.

Learning and Memory

Learning is a lasting change in behavior due to experience.
Memory is the encoding, storing, and retrieving information as a result of learning.
Classical conditioning: A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually eliciting a conditioned response.
- Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Naturally produces a response (e.g., food).
- Unconditioned response (UCR): The natural response to the UCS (e.g., salivation).
- Conditioned stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after pairing with the UCS (e.g., a bell).
- Conditioned response (CR): The learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation at the sound of the bell).
Operant conditioning: Learning through rewards and punishments, where behaviors are influenced by their consequences.
- Reinforcement: Increases behavior.
  - Positive reinforcement: Adding something pleasant (e.g., a treat).
  - Negative reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant (e.g., ending a chore).
- Punishment: Decreases behavior.
  - Positive punishment: Adding something unpleasant (e.g., scolding).
  - Negative punishment: Removing something pleasant (e.g., taking away TV privileges).
  - Continuous reinforcement: Behavior is reinforced every time.
  - Intermittent reinforcement: Reinforcement is given at varying intervals or ratios, making behavior more resistant to extinction.
Explicit memory: Consciously recalled memories.
- Episodic memory: Memory of personal experiences.
- Semantic memory: Facts and general knowledge.
Implicit memory: Unconsciously recalled memories.
- Procedural memory: Skills and tasks (e.g., riding a bike).
- Associative memory: Classical conditioning responses.
H.M.'s case: H.M. lost the ability to form new explicit memories after surgery for epilepsy, highlighting the role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation.
Forgetting curve: Rapid forgetting occurs initially after learning, but the remaining information tends to be retained over time.
Proactive interference: Old memories interfering with new memories.
Retroactive interference: New memories interfering with recalling old memories.
Flashbulb memories: Strong memories formed under intense emotional experiences, though they may not be accurate.

Additional Notes on Sensation and Perception

Light as a Stimulus: Wavelength determines color (short = blue/violet, long = red).
The Auditory System: Structure of the ear: outer ear (pinna), middle ear (tympanic membrane & ossicles), inner ear (cochlea).
Transduction of Sound: Vibrations move basilar membrane, shearing hair cells and converting it to neural signals.
Somatosensory System: Detects touch, pressure, vibration, pain, temperature.
The Homunculus & Somatosensory Cortex: Sensory input is mapped in the brain, with areas with more sensory input represented larger (e.g., hands, lips).
Psychophysics: Studies the relationship between stimuli and perception.
- Absolute threshold: Minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time.
- Subliminal perception: Processing stimuli below conscious detection.
The Gestalt School & Grouping Principles:
- Similarity, proximity, continuity, closure help us perceive whole objects.

Additional Notes on Learning and Memory

Real-World Classical Conditioning: Explains preferences, aversions, emotional reactions.
Extinction in Classical Conditioning: The CS no longer paired with UCS, leading to CR disappearance.
Operant Conditioning: Skinner's Reinforcement Schedules:
- Fixed ratio, Variable ratio, Fixed interval, Variable interval.
Cognitive Learning (Edward Tolman): Latent learning - learning occurs without immediate reinforcement, cognitive maps (e.g., rats navigating a maze).
Memory Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval:
- Encoding - converting input to memory.
- Storage - retaining information.
- Retrieval - accessing stored information.
Short-Term vs.Long-Term Memory:
- Short-term - temporary, limited capacity (7±2 items).
- Long-term - stable, lasting years; consolidated in the hippocampus.
The Case of H.M.& Memory Systems: H.M. could not form new explicit memories but retained implicit memories.
Forgetting and Memory Interference: Proactive and retroactive interference.
Context-dependent memory: Better recall when context matches the learning environment.
Eyewitness Memory & Misinformation Effect: Eyewitness testimony is unreliable; memory can be altered by misleading information.

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Description

Explore the intricate processes of sensation and perception in this quiz. Learn how sensory receptors detect stimuli and how our brains interpret this information to understand the world around us. Test your knowledge on the anatomy of the human eye and the principles of sensory transduction.