Psychology Scientific Research Methods
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Questions and Answers

What is one of the scientific attitudes that is essential in psychology?

  • Complacency
  • Indifference
  • Rigidity
  • Curiosity (correct)

What is the first step in gathering evidence in scientific research?

  • Formulate a theory
  • Identify a question of interest (correct)
  • Analyze data
  • Conduct a research experiment

What does a hypothesis typically express?

  • A general assumption about behavior
  • An if-then prediction about a phenomenon (correct)
  • A summary of past findings
  • A random guess about outcomes

In the study by Darley & Latane, what was the effect of increasing the number of bystanders on the likelihood of intervention?

<p>The likelihood of intervention decreased (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

After analyzing data, what is the next step in the research process?

<p>Submit a report detailing findings (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an important aspect of building a body of knowledge in scientific research?

<p>Asking additional questions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT part of the scientific process in psychology?

<p>Making vague generalizations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did the results from Darley & Latane's study reveal regarding the behavior of individuals in emergencies?

<p>Bystanders become less likely to help as more people are present (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of external validity in an experiment?

<p>To assess how well results can be applied to the real world. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a double blind study aim to eliminate?

<p>Bias from the experimenters and expectations of participants. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the unintentional influence an experimenter may have on participants?

<p>Experimenter expectancy effects. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is replication important in research?

<p>It confirms that findings are accurate across various settings and conditions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can expectations of alcohol impact research participants in a study?

<p>Participants may experience effects regardless of actual consumption. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a good theory in behavioral research?

<p>It should be testable and generate new hypotheses. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a method of measurement in psychological research?

<p>Intuition-based assessments (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Operational definitions are important because they help to:

<p>Make abstract concepts concrete and measurable. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one advantage of conducting case studies?

<p>They can examine rare phenomena in depth. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about hindsight reasoning is true?

<p>It trivializes understanding by explaining events after they happen. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of measuring behaviors, physiological measures include:

<p>Heart rate and brain activation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of theories in behavioral research?

<p>To develop new hypotheses for further testing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research method focuses on describing behavior in natural settings?

<p>Descriptive Research (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Self-reports can vary in accuracy due to:

<p>The honesty of responses can be affected by social desirability bias. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major limitation of using overt behavior measures?

<p>They do not capture internal states effectively. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the law of parsimony, a good theory should:

<p>Explain phenomena in the simplest terms possible. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the theory of social impact illustrate?

<p>The relationship between individual behavior and group dynamics. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about psychological tests is accurate?

<p>They are used to identify patterns in responding. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major limitation of survey research?

<p>Self-reports can be distorted. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method allows for the observation of behavior without intervention from the observer?

<p>Naturalistic Observation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one disadvantage of using a correlational research method?

<p>It can lead to misinterpretation if confounding variables are present. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In correlational studies, a correlation coefficient of +1.00 indicates what?

<p>A perfect positive relationship. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes a sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population?

<p>Representative Sample (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of learning styles, what has been found about claims of distinct styles?

<p>Evidence supporting learning styles often uses poor research designs. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a negative correlation imply about two variables?

<p>One increases as the other decreases. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the major flaw of the 1936 Literary Digest poll?

<p>It relied on a sample that did not represent all socioeconomic statuses. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'self-reports can be distorted' suggest about certain research methods?

<p>Participants can lie or misremember. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the marshmallow experiment exemplify in terms of research?

<p>An exploration of self-control and delayed gratification. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sampling ensures that specific subgroups are represented accurately?

<p>Stratified Random Sampling (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key component of correlation research?

<p>Measuring two variables to identify relationships. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean if a correlation coefficient is closer to 0.00?

<p>A weak or no relationship exists. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of a study focused on observational techniques?

<p>The observer influences participant behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a high correlation coefficient close to 1 indicate?

<p>A strong association facilitating prediction between variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one significant finding from the study by Sears, Maccoby, and Levin regarding parenting styles?

<p>Children of warm parents were better adjusted. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which research method allows the investigation of variables not suitable for experimental strategies?

<p>Correlational Research (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In an experiment, what is the role of the independent variable?

<p>It is the condition or event that is changed to observe effects. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What constitutes a confounding variable?

<p>A variable that influences both the independent and dependent variables. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does random assignment enhance the validity of an experiment?

<p>It ensures equal distribution of confounding variables across groups. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary disadvantage of correlational research?

<p>It cannot establish cause and effect relationships. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'demand characteristics' in research?

<p>Participants' responses influenced by their expectations of the research. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the placebo effect demonstrate in research?

<p>Improvements can occur due to participants' expectations rather than the treatment. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do experimental and control groups differ in a study?

<p>Experimental groups receive the independent variable treatment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the dependent variable in the experiment involving guinea pig offspring and alcohol consumption?

<p>The time it takes for offspring to navigate the maze. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is internal validity in experimental research?

<p>The degree to which an experiment accurately reflects causal conclusions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of strong experimental design?

<p>Descriptive statistics analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Scientific method

A systematic approach to asking and answering questions about the universe, guided by scientific principles.

Hypothesis

A specific prediction about a phenomenon, stated as an if-then statement.

Research

A process of testing hypotheses by collecting and analyzing data.

Variables

Factors that can change and be measured in an experiment.

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Scientific attitude: Curiosity

The desire to explore and ask questions about the world.

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Scientific attitude: Skepticism

An attitude of questioning and evaluating information critically.

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Darley & Latane (1968) study

A study showing bystander effect, where likelihood of intervention decreases as number of witnesses increases.

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Bystander effect

The tendency for individuals to be less likely to help in an emergency when other people are present.

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Placebo Effect

A phenomenon where people experience improvement even when given a fake treatment due to their belief in its effectiveness.

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Experimenter Expectancy

When the experimenter unintentionally influences participants' behavior, leading to desired results.

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Double-Blind Study

A study where both the participants and the researchers are unaware of who receives the real treatment and who receives the placebo.

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External Validity

The extent to which research findings apply to real-world situations and populations.

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Replication

Repeating a study with different participants, settings, and conditions to confirm the original findings.

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Theory

A set of statements explaining how and why events are related, typically specifying relationships between behaviors and their causes.

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Self-correction in Science

The process of refining and improving theories through ongoing research and testing, leading to more accurate understanding.

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Hindsight Bias

The tendency to overestimate our ability to have predicted an event after it has occurred.

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Understanding through Prediction and Control

A scientific approach to understanding behavior that emphasizes predicting and influencing events.

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Parsimony in Theory

A principle stating that the simplest explanation with the fewest assumptions is usually the best.

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Operational Definition

A precise description of how a variable will be measured in a study.

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Self-report Measures

Data gathered by asking individuals directly about their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors.

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Social Desirability Bias

The tendency for people to present themselves in a positive light, even if it means distorting their responses.

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Reports by Others

Gathering information about a person from individuals who know them well.

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Measures of Overt Behaviour

Recording directly observable behaviors.

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Unobtrusive Measures

Observational techniques where participants are unaware they are being studied.

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Descriptive Research

Identifying and describing how humans and animals behave, often in natural settings.

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Case Study

An in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event to understand broader principles of behavior.

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Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive research method where researchers observe behavior in its natural setting without intervening.

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Participant Observation

A descriptive research method where the researcher becomes a part of the group being observed.

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Survey Research

A descriptive research method using questionnaires or interviews to collect data about people's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.

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Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population being studied.

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Random Sampling

A method of selecting participants for a study where each member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen.

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Limitations of Survey Research

Survey research cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships, and self-reported data can be unreliable.

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Correlation

A statistical relationship between two variables, indicating how strongly they are associated.

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Positive Correlation

A relationship where two variables increase or decrease together.

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Negative Correlation

A relationship where two variables move in opposite directions.

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Correlation Coefficient

A number between -1.00 and +1.00 that indicates the strength and direction of a correlation.

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Strong Correlation

A correlation close to +1.00 or -1.00, indicating a strong association between variables.

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Weak Correlation

A correlation close to 0, indicating a weak or no association between variables.

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Correlation Doesn't Equal Causation

Just because two variables are correlated doesn't mean one causes the other.

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Experimental Research

Research that manipulates one variable (independent) to see its effect on another variable (dependent).

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Scatterplot

A graph that displays the relationship between two variables, showing how changes in one variable are associated with changes in the other.

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Prediction

The ability to estimate the value of one variable based on the value of another variable, when a strong correlation exists between them.

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Parenting Styles

Distinct patterns of parenting behaviors that influence children's development. Examples include warm/responsive, cold/rejecting, strict/punitive, and permissive.

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Operationalize

Defining a psychological concept in terms of measurable behaviors or observable characteristics. For example, defining 'warmth' as a parent's frequency of hugs and expressions of affection.

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Correlation vs. Causation

Just because two variables are correlated doesn't mean one causes the other. There might be other factors involved, or the relationship could be reversed.

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Bi-directionality Problem

When two variables influence each other, making it difficult to determine which is the cause and which is the effect.

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Third Variable Problem

When a third, unobserved variable is responsible for the relationship between two variables.

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Correlational Research Advantages

Exploring relationships between variables that cannot be easily manipulated experimentally, like naturally occurring phenomena or past events.

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Correlational Research Disadvantages

Inability to establish cause and effect conclusively due to lack of experimental control. This can lead to false conclusions.

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Experiment

A scientific method where researchers manipulate a variable under controlled conditions to observe its effects on another variable. It helps establish cause and effect relationships.

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Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated or changed by the researcher to see its effect on another variable. It's the 'treatment' or 'cause' in an experiment.

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Dependent Variable

The factor that is measured or observed in an experiment and is expected to be influenced by the independent variable. It's the 'outcome' or 'effect'.

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Experimental Group

The group of participants in an experiment who receive the special treatment or manipulation of the independent variable.

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Control Group

The group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the special treatment or manipulation. They serve as a baseline for comparison.

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Confounding Variable

Any factor other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable, making it difficult to isolate the true effect of the independent variable.

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Study Notes

Introduction to Psychology Research

  • Psychology research uses scientific principles to investigate questions about the universe.
  • Scientific investigation distinguishes itself from other approaches due to its emphasis on established principles.
  • Early psychology research faced challenges due to the intangible nature of its subject matter.

Scientific Principles in Psychology

  • Scientific Attitudes: Curiosity, skepticism, and open-mindedness are essential components of scientific inquiry.
  • Gathering Evidence (Steps): The scientific process involves: identifying a question of interest; gathering information and forming a hypothesis; testing the hypothesis through research; analyzing data and drawing conclusions; and communicating findings to further scientific discourse.

Formulating Hypotheses

  • A hypothesis is a specific prediction about a phenomenon stated as an "if-then" statement.
    • Example: "If the number of bystanders increases, then the likelihood of intervention decreases." or "If more cigarettes are smoked, then the likelihood of health problems increases."

Testing Hypotheses

  • Research studies test hypotheses rigorously.
    • Example: Darley & Latane (1968) investigated bystander intervention in emergencies using random assignment to conditions: alone with a victim; one other listener present; or four other listeners present.

Analyzing Data and Drawing Conclusions

  • Data analysis helps researchers determine whether their hypothesis is supported and draw tentative conclusions.
  • Example: In Darley & Latane's study, the results showed that participants who thought they were alone responded more quickly than those who believed others were present.

Generating a Body of Knowledge

  • Building upon initial findings, researchers create and test new hypotheses.
  • Theory Building: Theories explain events by outlining the relationship between variables (e.g., the theory of social impact).
  • Scientific development is a cyclical process of refining and testing knowledge based on accumulated evidence.

Understanding Behavior: Hindsight vs Prediction

  • Hindsight (After-the-fact): A retrospective understanding that can be overly simplistic and trivializing.
    • Example: "absence makes the heart grow fonder".
  • Prediction, Control, and Theory Building: Science involves actively predicting outcomes, controlling variables, and creating theories to explain these relationships, offering a more comprehensive approach.

Defining and Measuring Variables

  • Variables are factors that can vary. Psychological variables (e.g., intelligence, shyness, stress) are often abstract.
  • Operational Definitions: converting abstract variables into observable and measurable components to avoid ambiguity.
  • Examples of Operational Definitions: Academic performance measured as test scores, stress as self-reported measures, or even physiological indicators (heart rate).

Measurement Techniques

  • Numerous methods measure psychological variables including: self-reports, reports from others, measures of overt behavior, psychological tests, and physiological measures.
  • Self-reports: People report their experiences; issues include social desirability bias and sensitivity of topics.
  • Other reports: Other individuals reporting on participant data can be used.
  • Overt behavior: Directly observable behavior is carefully recorded, categorized, and analyzed.
  • Archival measures: Existing records (e.g., documents, crime rates) are examined for relevant information.
  • Unobtrusive measures: Participants may not know they're being observed to reduce bias.

Research Methods (Descriptive vs. Correlational vs. Experimental)

  • Descriptive: Used to explore and gather information about behavior. Examples include Case studies, Naturalistic observations, Surveys).
  • Case studies: In-depth investigation of an individual or group (e.g., study of H.M., the amnesiac).
  • Naturalistic observations: Observing behavior in natural settings, minimizing intervention (e.g., analyzing bullying behavior in schools).
  • Surveys: Collecting data using questionnaires or interviews to investigate people's behaviors and beliefs.
    • Representative samples: Essential for generalizing results to broader populations

Correlational Research Methods

  • Correlational research examines the relationship between naturally occurring variables.
  • Correlation coefficients: Numerical indices ranging from -1.00 to +1.00; measure the strength and direction of a correlation.
    • Variables can be positively correlated (change in same direction), negatively correlated (opp. directions).
    • A lack of correlation means no relationship.

Experimental Research Methods

  • Experimental research manipulates variables to investigate cause-and-effect relationships.
  • Independent variable: The manipulated factor.
  • Dependent variable: The measured outcome.
  • Experimental and Control groups: Essential for isolating the effect of the independent variable.
  • Controlling for confounding variables: Ensuring that any observed effect is due only to the manipulated variable.
  • Threats to validity: Including experimenter expectancy and participant expectations can affect study validity.

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Test your knowledge of the essential scientific attitudes and processes in psychology. This quiz covers hypotheses, validity, and significant studies like the one by Darley & Latane. Understand the critical steps involved in conducting and interpreting psychological research.

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