Psychology Chapter 2: Getting Started in Research
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Questions and Answers

What characteristics define a good research question?

  • It must be based on existing theories only.
  • It requires a significant amount of prior knowledge.
  • It has important practical outcomes. (correct)
  • It should be vague to allow for broad exploration.

    • Which of the following statements about hypotheses is true?

  • Hypotheses can be non-testable predictions.
  • Hypotheses are always derived from facts.
  • Hypotheses must be testable predictions about phenomena. (correct)
  • Hypotheses cannot be specific predictions.

    • Which methods can be used in hypothesis formulation?

  • Inductive reasoning alone.
  • Deductive reasoning only.
  • There are no specific methods for hypothesis formulation.
  • Inductive and deductive reasoning. (correct)

    • What is a theory according to the provided content?

    <p>A cohesive explanation of a set of events. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the ROT test in research signify?

    <p>Research should be repeatable, observable, and testable. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does an independent variable (IV) represent in experimental research?

    <p>A variable manipulated by the experimenter (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of sampling allows every member of the population an equal chance of selection?

    <p>Simple random sampling (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes confounding variables from extraneous variables?

    <p>Confounding variables systematically vary with IV/DV (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of research does the researcher measure variables without manipulation?

    <p>Non-experimental research (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of study is likely to have high internal validity?

    <p>Laboratory study (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the presumed outcome that a dependent variable (DV) measures?

    <p>The effect of the independent variable (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a convenience sample?

    <p>Participants chosen based on their proximity and willingness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are extraneous variables in an experiment?

    <p>Variables other than IV/DV that might affect results (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mode of the given scores?

    <p>8 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is the mean of the scores calculated?

    <p>By finding the average of all scores (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a variance of zero indicate about a set of scores?

    <p>All scores are the same (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes correlation?

    <p>It shows how one trait can affect another trait. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If two samples have the same mean, what can be said about their variation?

    <p>They can still differ significantly. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which calculation determines the average of the following scores: 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, and 10?

    <p>Total divided by 7 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the first step in the model of scientific research in psychology?

    <p>Choosing a research question (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What follows after formulating a testable hypothesis in the scientific method?

    <p>Designing the study (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of conducting a literature review in the research process?

    <p>To identify gaps and establish context for the research question (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step involves selecting the appropriate research methods for a study?

    <p>Designing the study (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of generating good research questions in the research process?

    <p>To establish a clear focus for the research (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    After analyzing the data, what is the subsequent step in the research process?

    <p>Drawing conclusions and reporting the results (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which step is critical for ensuring that research findings are grounded in existing knowledge?

    <p>Conducting a literature review (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which step of the scientific method do researchers determine the study's structure and approach?

    <p>Designing the study (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What indicates that research results are statistically significant?

    <p>When the p-value is less than 5% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a Type I Error (α) involve?

    <p>Rejecting H0 when it is actually true (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding Type II Error (β)?

    <p>You fail to reject H0 when it is actually false (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does sample size affect variability in results?

    <p>Larger sample sizes provide more reliable results (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition must be true for results to be statistically significant?

    <p>The probability of chance findings must be very low (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can we conclude from a single study regarding a theory?

    <p>We cannot conclude with certainty that a theory is true (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of a field study?

    <p>It is conducted in a natural environment. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the standard deviation represent in the context of research?

    <p>The variability of the research findings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to consider both Type I and Type II errors in research?

    <p>They inform about the likelihood of misinterpretation of findings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does internal validity allow researchers to do?

    <p>Make causal conclusions between variables. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when you correctly fail to reject H0?

    <p>You correctly determine H0 is true (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of external validity?

    <p>It assesses the generalizability of findings. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which measure of central tendency is defined as the most frequently occurring score?

    <p>Mode (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one potential consequence of having a sample size that is too small?

    <p>Lower confidence in the findings (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the mean represent in statistics?

    <p>The arithmetic average of scores. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is there typically a trade-off between internal and external validity?

    <p>Stricter controls enhance internal validity but reduce generalizability. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What statistical concept is primarily used to generalize results from a sample to a population?

    <p>Inferential Statistics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the median in a ranked data set?

    <p>The score at the center of the distribution. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Scientific Method

    A series of steps followed to conduct scientific research in psychology.

    Research Question

    A question that a research study aims to answer.

    Hypothesis

    A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

    Literature Review

    A summary of existing research on a topic, done before beginning a new study.

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    Research Design

    The plan for carrying out a research study, including methods and procedures.

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    Data Analysis

    The process of examining collected data to answer the research question.

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    Drawing Conclusions

    Interpreting the results of a study to determine if the hypothesis was supported or refuted.

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    Reporting Results

    Communicating the study's findings, methods, and conclusions to the scientific community.

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    Good Research Question

    A question that can be answered through the scientific method; it builds knowledge, predicts future outcomes, and has practical implications.

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    Theory

    A cohesive explanation about a set of events that has not yet been shown to be untrue.

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    Hypothetico-Deductive Method

    A method that uses theories to form hypotheses, which are tested through observation and experimentation.

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    Good Hypothesis

    A hypothesis that is specific, testable, and predictive.

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    Simple Random Sampling

    Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for a sample.

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    Convenience Sample

    A sample using readily available individuals for research, often those nearby or willing to participate.

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    Independent Variable (IV)

    The variable manipulated by the researcher to see its effect (the presumed cause).

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    Dependent Variable (DV)

    The variable measured by the researcher (the presumed effect).

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    Extraneous Variables

    Any variables other than the independent and dependent variables that could influence the results.

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    Confounds

    Extraneous variables that systematically vary with the variables under investigation, offering an alternative explanation for the results.

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    Laboratory Study

    Research conducted in a controlled lab environment.

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    Non-Experimental Research

    Research that measures variables without manipulating them.

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    Measures of Dispersion

    These statistics describe how spread out or varied the scores are in a distribution.

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    Range

    The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

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    What is the mode?

    The most frequent score in a dataset.

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    What is the median?

    The middle score in a dataset when arranged from lowest to highest.

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    What is the mean?

    The average of all scores in a dataset.

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    Correlation Coefficient

    A statistical measure that describes how strongly two variables are related.

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    Positive Correlation

    When two variables increase or decrease together.

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    Negative Correlation

    When one variable increases and the other decreases.

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    Field Study

    Research conducted in a real-world setting, often with high external validity. This means the results are likely to apply to other situations.

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    Internal Validity

    How confident we are that changes in one variable are truly caused by changes in another variable, not something else.

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    External Validity

    The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, and times.

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    Trade-off between Internal and External Validity

    Increasing one type of validity often decreases the other. This means it's hard to have both strong internal and external validity in one study.

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    Mode

    The most frequent score in a dataset. This tells us the score that occurs most often.

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    Mean

    The average score in a dataset. This is calculated by adding all scores and dividing by the number of scores.

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    Median

    The middle score in a dataset when it's ordered from smallest to largest. Represents the central point in a data distribution.

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    Statistically Significant Results

    Research findings that are unlikely to be due to chance, meaning they are probably real.

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    Type I Error

    Rejecting the null hypothesis (H0) when it is actually true. You conclude there's an effect when there isn't one.

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    Type II Error

    Failing to reject the null hypothesis (H0) when it is actually false. You miss a real effect.

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    Null Hypothesis (H0)

    A statement that there is no difference or relationship between variables. It is the starting point for hypothesis testing.

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    Standard Deviation

    A measure of how spread out data points are from the average. It tells you how much variability there is in the data.

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    Sample Size

    The number of individuals or observations included in a study. A larger sample size generally leads to more reliable results.

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    Probability of Observed Findings

    The likelihood of obtaining the observed results if the null hypothesis (H0) were true.

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    Drawing Conclusions from a Single Study

    We can't be completely certain a theory is true based on just one study due to the possibility of errors.

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    Variability in Data

    The extent to which data points differ from each other. High variability makes it harder to detect real effects.

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    Key to Detecting Real Effects

    A combination of a statistically significant result (low probability of chance) and a low amount of variability in the data.

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    Study Notes

    Chapter 2: Getting Started in Research

    • Lecture Overview: Covers scientific research methods in psychology including research topic generation, question development, hypothesis creation, study design, data analysis, and results reporting. Includes reminder about assignment 1.

    Scientific Method

    • Steps: Formulate a testable hypothesis; select a method and design a study; collect data; analyze data and draw conclusions; report findings.

    Steps in the Research Process

    • Steps: Choosing research question; conducting literature review; making a hypothesis; designing the study; conducting the study; analyzing data; reporting results.

    How to Find a Research Topic

    • Inspiration Sources: Informal observations, practical problems, previous research.

    Scholarly Sources

    • Characteristics: Peer-reviewed, critically reviewed for scientific merit, expert review, recommendations for publication.

    Types of Scholarly Sources

    • Categories: Journal articles (empirical, review, theoretical, meta-analyses), book chapters, full-length books.

    Where to Find Reliable Sources

    • Resources: School library databases (e.g., PsycINFO), Google Scholar, reference sections of relevant papers.

    Using the Library

    • Resources/Databases: Utilize psychology databases like PsycINFO or PsycARTICLES for articles and abstracts. Library staff can also assist.

    Generating Research Questions

    • Approaches: Questioning existing knowledge; improving previous research; applying established theories.

    Evaluating Research Questions

    • Factors: Interestingness (answer is in doubt, fills research gap, practical implications); feasibility (time, resources, skills, access).

    Theory vs. Hypothesis

    • Theory: A cohesive explanation of events, yet to be proven wrong.
    • Hypothesis: A testable prediction, often derived from a theory.

    Hypothetico-Deductive Method

    • Flowchart: Shows cycle of creating and testing hypotheses using research literature, observation, and empirical study.

    What Makes a Good Hypothesis?

    • Characteristics: Testable and falsifiable, logical, positive statement about a relationship, replicable.

    Variables

    • Definition: Quantities or qualities that vary across people/situations.
    • Types: Quantitative (measured numerically: height, talkativeness); Categorical (measured by categories: occupation, treatment type).

    Operational Definitions

    • Definition: Precise descriptions of how variables will be measured.
    • Importance: Move from abstract concepts to observable, measurable items.

    Sampling and Measurement

    • Population: Large group of interest to researchers.

    • Sample: Subset of the population, ideally representative

    • Types of Sampling: Simple random, convenience.

    Experimental Research

    • Independent Variable (IV): Variable manipulated.
    • Dependent Variable (DV): Variable measured.
    • Extraneous Variables: Other variables not of interest.
    • Confounds: Extraneous variables systematically related to IV/DV.

    Non-Experimental Research

    • Characteristics: Researcher does not manipulate variables; describes and predicts, but does not establish causality.

    Analyzing the Data

    • Descriptive statistics: Summarize data (mean, median, mode).
    • Inferential statistics: Generalize from sample to population.

    Measures of Central Tendency

    • Mode: Most frequent score.
    • Mean: Average score.
    • Median: Middle score when ordered.

    Measures of Dispersion

    • Range: Difference between highest and lowest scores.
    • Standard Deviation: Measures variation around the mean.

    Correlation Coefficient

    • Definition: Statistical measure of relationship between two variables.
    • Values: Range from -1 to +1 (strength and direction).

    Correlation and Causation

    • Not the same: Correlation doesn't imply causation; other factors may be involved.

    Type I and II Error

    • Type I Error: Rejecting a true null hypothesis.
    • Type II Error: Failing to reject a false null hypothesis.

    Drawing Conclusions

    • Limitations: Single studies cannot definitively prove theories; conclusions are based on broader evidence and research trends.

    Reporting Results

    • Format: Typically reported in peer-reviewed journals and conferences.
    • Importance: Provides feedback from others in field before publication.

    Creating Research Questions

    • Strategies: Develop clear research questions; use existing literature and observations.

    Research Proposal

    • Guidelines: Provides an introduction on how to create a research proposal including relevant online resources for additional help.

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    PSYC 2900U - Lecture 3 - Ch. 2 Getting Started in Research

    Description

    This quiz focuses on the essential steps in scientific research methods within psychology. It covers topics such as hypothesis formulation, study design, data analysis, and reporting of results. Additionally, it discusses how to find a research topic and identifies characteristics of scholarly sources.

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