Psychology Chapter 2: Getting Started in Research

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Questions and Answers

What characteristics define a good research question?

  • It must be based on existing theories only.
  • It requires a significant amount of prior knowledge.
  • It has important practical outcomes. (correct)
  • It should be vague to allow for broad exploration.

Which of the following statements about hypotheses is true?

  • Hypotheses can be non-testable predictions.
  • Hypotheses are always derived from facts.
  • Hypotheses must be testable predictions about phenomena. (correct)
  • Hypotheses cannot be specific predictions.

Which methods can be used in hypothesis formulation?

  • Inductive reasoning alone.
  • Deductive reasoning only.
  • There are no specific methods for hypothesis formulation.
  • Inductive and deductive reasoning. (correct)

What is a theory according to the provided content?

<p>A cohesive explanation of a set of events. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the ROT test in research signify?

<p>Research should be repeatable, observable, and testable. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does an independent variable (IV) represent in experimental research?

<p>A variable manipulated by the experimenter (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sampling allows every member of the population an equal chance of selection?

<p>Simple random sampling (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes confounding variables from extraneous variables?

<p>Confounding variables systematically vary with IV/DV (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which type of research does the researcher measure variables without manipulation?

<p>Non-experimental research (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of study is likely to have high internal validity?

<p>Laboratory study (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the presumed outcome that a dependent variable (DV) measures?

<p>The effect of the independent variable (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a convenience sample?

<p>Participants chosen based on their proximity and willingness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are extraneous variables in an experiment?

<p>Variables other than IV/DV that might affect results (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mode of the given scores?

<p>8 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the mean of the scores calculated?

<p>By finding the average of all scores (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a variance of zero indicate about a set of scores?

<p>All scores are the same (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes correlation?

<p>It shows how one trait can affect another trait. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If two samples have the same mean, what can be said about their variation?

<p>They can still differ significantly. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which calculation determines the average of the following scores: 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 9, and 10?

<p>Total divided by 7 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in the model of scientific research in psychology?

<p>Choosing a research question (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What follows after formulating a testable hypothesis in the scientific method?

<p>Designing the study (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of conducting a literature review in the research process?

<p>To identify gaps and establish context for the research question (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which step involves selecting the appropriate research methods for a study?

<p>Designing the study (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of generating good research questions in the research process?

<p>To establish a clear focus for the research (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

After analyzing the data, what is the subsequent step in the research process?

<p>Drawing conclusions and reporting the results (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which step is critical for ensuring that research findings are grounded in existing knowledge?

<p>Conducting a literature review (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which step of the scientific method do researchers determine the study's structure and approach?

<p>Designing the study (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What indicates that research results are statistically significant?

<p>When the p-value is less than 5% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a Type I Error (α) involve?

<p>Rejecting H0 when it is actually true (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding Type II Error (β)?

<p>You fail to reject H0 when it is actually false (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sample size affect variability in results?

<p>Larger sample sizes provide more reliable results (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition must be true for results to be statistically significant?

<p>The probability of chance findings must be very low (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can we conclude from a single study regarding a theory?

<p>We cannot conclude with certainty that a theory is true (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of a field study?

<p>It is conducted in a natural environment. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the standard deviation represent in the context of research?

<p>The variability of the research findings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it important to consider both Type I and Type II errors in research?

<p>They inform about the likelihood of misinterpretation of findings (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does internal validity allow researchers to do?

<p>Make causal conclusions between variables. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when you correctly fail to reject H0?

<p>You correctly determine H0 is true (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of external validity?

<p>It assesses the generalizability of findings. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which measure of central tendency is defined as the most frequently occurring score?

<p>Mode (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential consequence of having a sample size that is too small?

<p>Lower confidence in the findings (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the mean represent in statistics?

<p>The arithmetic average of scores. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is there typically a trade-off between internal and external validity?

<p>Stricter controls enhance internal validity but reduce generalizability. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What statistical concept is primarily used to generalize results from a sample to a population?

<p>Inferential Statistics (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the median in a ranked data set?

<p>The score at the center of the distribution. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Scientific Method

A series of steps followed to conduct scientific research in psychology.

Research Question

A question that a research study aims to answer.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Literature Review

A summary of existing research on a topic, done before beginning a new study.

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Research Design

The plan for carrying out a research study, including methods and procedures.

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Data Analysis

The process of examining collected data to answer the research question.

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Drawing Conclusions

Interpreting the results of a study to determine if the hypothesis was supported or refuted.

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Reporting Results

Communicating the study's findings, methods, and conclusions to the scientific community.

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Good Research Question

A question that can be answered through the scientific method; it builds knowledge, predicts future outcomes, and has practical implications.

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Theory

A cohesive explanation about a set of events that has not yet been shown to be untrue.

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Hypothetico-Deductive Method

A method that uses theories to form hypotheses, which are tested through observation and experimentation.

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Good Hypothesis

A hypothesis that is specific, testable, and predictive.

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Simple Random Sampling

Every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for a sample.

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Convenience Sample

A sample using readily available individuals for research, often those nearby or willing to participate.

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Independent Variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the researcher to see its effect (the presumed cause).

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Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured by the researcher (the presumed effect).

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Extraneous Variables

Any variables other than the independent and dependent variables that could influence the results.

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Confounds

Extraneous variables that systematically vary with the variables under investigation, offering an alternative explanation for the results.

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Laboratory Study

Research conducted in a controlled lab environment.

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Non-Experimental Research

Research that measures variables without manipulating them.

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Measures of Dispersion

These statistics describe how spread out or varied the scores are in a distribution.

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Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a dataset.

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What is the mode?

The most frequent score in a dataset.

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What is the median?

The middle score in a dataset when arranged from lowest to highest.

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What is the mean?

The average of all scores in a dataset.

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Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure that describes how strongly two variables are related.

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Positive Correlation

When two variables increase or decrease together.

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Negative Correlation

When one variable increases and the other decreases.

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Field Study

Research conducted in a real-world setting, often with high external validity. This means the results are likely to apply to other situations.

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Internal Validity

How confident we are that changes in one variable are truly caused by changes in another variable, not something else.

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External Validity

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, and times.

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Trade-off between Internal and External Validity

Increasing one type of validity often decreases the other. This means it's hard to have both strong internal and external validity in one study.

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Mode

The most frequent score in a dataset. This tells us the score that occurs most often.

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Mean

The average score in a dataset. This is calculated by adding all scores and dividing by the number of scores.

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Median

The middle score in a dataset when it's ordered from smallest to largest. Represents the central point in a data distribution.

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Statistically Significant Results

Research findings that are unlikely to be due to chance, meaning they are probably real.

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Type I Error

Rejecting the null hypothesis (H0) when it is actually true. You conclude there's an effect when there isn't one.

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Type II Error

Failing to reject the null hypothesis (H0) when it is actually false. You miss a real effect.

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Null Hypothesis (H0)

A statement that there is no difference or relationship between variables. It is the starting point for hypothesis testing.

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Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out data points are from the average. It tells you how much variability there is in the data.

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Sample Size

The number of individuals or observations included in a study. A larger sample size generally leads to more reliable results.

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Probability of Observed Findings

The likelihood of obtaining the observed results if the null hypothesis (H0) were true.

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Drawing Conclusions from a Single Study

We can't be completely certain a theory is true based on just one study due to the possibility of errors.

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Variability in Data

The extent to which data points differ from each other. High variability makes it harder to detect real effects.

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Key to Detecting Real Effects

A combination of a statistically significant result (low probability of chance) and a low amount of variability in the data.

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Study Notes

Chapter 2: Getting Started in Research

  • Lecture Overview: Covers scientific research methods in psychology including research topic generation, question development, hypothesis creation, study design, data analysis, and results reporting. Includes reminder about assignment 1.

Scientific Method

  • Steps: Formulate a testable hypothesis; select a method and design a study; collect data; analyze data and draw conclusions; report findings.

Steps in the Research Process

  • Steps: Choosing research question; conducting literature review; making a hypothesis; designing the study; conducting the study; analyzing data; reporting results.

How to Find a Research Topic

  • Inspiration Sources: Informal observations, practical problems, previous research.

Scholarly Sources

  • Characteristics: Peer-reviewed, critically reviewed for scientific merit, expert review, recommendations for publication.

Types of Scholarly Sources

  • Categories: Journal articles (empirical, review, theoretical, meta-analyses), book chapters, full-length books.

Where to Find Reliable Sources

  • Resources: School library databases (e.g., PsycINFO), Google Scholar, reference sections of relevant papers.

Using the Library

  • Resources/Databases: Utilize psychology databases like PsycINFO or PsycARTICLES for articles and abstracts. Library staff can also assist.

Generating Research Questions

  • Approaches: Questioning existing knowledge; improving previous research; applying established theories.

Evaluating Research Questions

  • Factors: Interestingness (answer is in doubt, fills research gap, practical implications); feasibility (time, resources, skills, access).

Theory vs. Hypothesis

  • Theory: A cohesive explanation of events, yet to be proven wrong.
  • Hypothesis: A testable prediction, often derived from a theory.

Hypothetico-Deductive Method

  • Flowchart: Shows cycle of creating and testing hypotheses using research literature, observation, and empirical study.

What Makes a Good Hypothesis?

  • Characteristics: Testable and falsifiable, logical, positive statement about a relationship, replicable.

Variables

  • Definition: Quantities or qualities that vary across people/situations.
  • Types: Quantitative (measured numerically: height, talkativeness); Categorical (measured by categories: occupation, treatment type).

Operational Definitions

  • Definition: Precise descriptions of how variables will be measured.
  • Importance: Move from abstract concepts to observable, measurable items.

Sampling and Measurement

  • Population: Large group of interest to researchers.

  • Sample: Subset of the population, ideally representative

  • Types of Sampling: Simple random, convenience.

Experimental Research

  • Independent Variable (IV): Variable manipulated.
  • Dependent Variable (DV): Variable measured.
  • Extraneous Variables: Other variables not of interest.
  • Confounds: Extraneous variables systematically related to IV/DV.

Non-Experimental Research

  • Characteristics: Researcher does not manipulate variables; describes and predicts, but does not establish causality.

Analyzing the Data

  • Descriptive statistics: Summarize data (mean, median, mode).
  • Inferential statistics: Generalize from sample to population.

Measures of Central Tendency

  • Mode: Most frequent score.
  • Mean: Average score.
  • Median: Middle score when ordered.

Measures of Dispersion

  • Range: Difference between highest and lowest scores.
  • Standard Deviation: Measures variation around the mean.

Correlation Coefficient

  • Definition: Statistical measure of relationship between two variables.
  • Values: Range from -1 to +1 (strength and direction).

Correlation and Causation

  • Not the same: Correlation doesn't imply causation; other factors may be involved.

Type I and II Error

  • Type I Error: Rejecting a true null hypothesis.
  • Type II Error: Failing to reject a false null hypothesis.

Drawing Conclusions

  • Limitations: Single studies cannot definitively prove theories; conclusions are based on broader evidence and research trends.

Reporting Results

  • Format: Typically reported in peer-reviewed journals and conferences.
  • Importance: Provides feedback from others in field before publication.

Creating Research Questions

  • Strategies: Develop clear research questions; use existing literature and observations.

Research Proposal

  • Guidelines: Provides an introduction on how to create a research proposal including relevant online resources for additional help.

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