Psychology Perspectives and Research Ethics

Defining Psychology

• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including how individuals think, feel, and act.
• It focuses on two main areas:
  • Behavior: Observable actions like speaking, movement, and social interactions.
  • Mental processes: Internal experiences like thoughts, emotions, and problem-solving.
• Examples of behavioral studies: aggression, social interactions, sleep patterns.
• Examples of mental process studies: memory, decision-making, problem-solving.

Psychology's Roots

• Wilhelm Wundt is considered the "Father of Psychology".
• He established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.
• He studied conscious experience using introspection.

Focus of Early Schools of Thought

• Structuralism: Broke down mental processes into basic components using introspection (Wundt, Titchener).
• Functionalism: Emphasized how mental and behavioral processes function and help individuals adapt to their environment (William James).
• Behaviorism: Focused on observable behavior and how it is learned (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner).
• Psychoanalysis: Explored unconscious motives and conflicts, emphasizing childhood experiences (Sigmund Freud).
• Gestalt Psychology: Studied how people perceive and experience things as whole patterns rather than separate parts (Max Wertheimer).

Perspectives in Psychology

• Modern Perspectives:
  • Biological: Examines biology, genetics, and the nervous system on behavior.
  • Cognitive: Studies how people think, perceive, remember, and learn.
  • Behavioral: Focuses on external stimuli shaping observable behavior.
  • Psychodynamic: Emphasizes unconscious drives and conflicts.
  • Humanistic: Focuses on free will, personal growth, and potential.
  • Sociocultural: Examines how society and culture influence behavior.
  • Evolutionary: Explores how behavior has evolved for survival and adaptation.
• The most relevant perspective for observable behaviors is the behavioral perspective.
• The perspective most likely to focus on unconscious motives is the psychodynamic perspective.
• The perspective most likely to focus on how people think, process and store information is the cognitive perspective.

Critical Thinking in Psychology

• Four key elements of the Scientific Attitude:
  • Curiosity: Asking questions and eagerness to learn.
  • Skepticism: Questioning claims and not accepting things at face value.
  • Humility: Recognizing the possibility of being wrong and openness to new evidence.
  • Critical Thinking: Analyzing and evaluating evidence before drawing conclusions.
• Critical thinking is important for psychologists to avoid biases, evaluate evidence objectively, and make informed decisions. Example: Evaluating a new drug's effectiveness based on multiple studies.

Scientific Research and Methods

• Four goals of psychology as a science:
  • Describing: Observing and detailing behaviors and mental processes.
  • Explaining: Determining the causes of behaviors and thoughts.
  • Predicting: Forecasting how individuals may behave in certain situations.
  • Controlling: Modifying behaviors to improve lives.
• Independent Variable: The factor that is manipulated in an experiment.
• Dependent Variable: The factor that is measured to see the effect of the independent variable.
• Research Methods
  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behaviors in a natural setting (realistic behaviors, lack of control).
  • Case Studies: In-depth analysis of a single subject (in-depth analysis, cannot generalize).
  • Surveys: Quick data collection (ease of collection, potential for bias).

Ethics in Psychology

• Ethical principles in psychological research prioritize participant rights and well-being: informed consent, protection from disclosure of risks, ability to withdraw from the study, and debriefing.
• Role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB): Reviews research studies to ensure ethical standards are met.

Statistical Basics

• Central tendency: Summarizing a dataset.
  • Mean: Average.
  • Median: Middle value.
  • Mode: Most frequent value.
• Measures of variation: Describing the spread of data (range, variance, standard deviation).

The Building Blocks of the Brain

• The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that transmit signals between different parts of the body to coordinate actions and responses.

Generating and Sending Messages

• Action Potential: An electrical signal that travels along an axon.
• All-or-none Principle: A neuron either fires at full strength or not at all.
• Membrane Potential: Forces are involved in membrane potential:
  • Sodium-Potassium Pump
  • Depolarization
  • Repolarization
• Synaptic Transmission: Neurotransmitters are released across synapses.
  • Synaptic Vesicles: Contain neurotransmitters.
  • Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger.
  • Synaptic Gap: The space between neurons.

Neurotransmitters

• Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Increase the likelihood of a neuron firing.
• Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing.
• Examples of neurotransmitters and their functions.
• Example of a drug that affects neurotransmission: SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors), which act as agonists.

Looking at the Brain

• Brain imaging techniques:
  • Invasive: Deep Brain Stimulation
  • Non-invasive : MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging), CT (computed tomographic scans), EEG (electroencephalogram), fMRI (functional MRI), and PET (positron emission tomography).

Brain Structures

• Older Brain Structures (e.g., Thalamus, Pons, Medulla): Functions related to sensory relay, sleep regulation, movement coordination, heart rate, and breathing.
• Limbic Structures (e.g., Amygdala, Hippocampus, Hypothalamus): Functions: emotions, memory, and basic urges.
• Four Lobes of the Brain:
  • Frontal: Planning, decision making, motor control.
  • Parietal: Processes sensory information.
  • Occipital: Visual processing.
  • Temporal: Hearing, language, comprehension, memory.

The Nervous System

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS, connecting it to the rest of the body.
• Somatic NS: Controls voluntary movements.
• Autonomic NS: Regulates involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate digestion).
• Sympathetic NS: Activates "fight or flight" response
• Parasympathetic NS: Promotes "rest and digest."

Brain Plasticity

• Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience or injury.
• It allows for learning, memory formation, and recovery from brain damage.
• Example: Case of Jody Miller, who had a hemispherectomy.

Understanding Human Development

• Human development is the study of how people grow, change, and adapt throughout the lifespan.
• Abilities develop rapidly in infancy and childhood, stabilize in adulthood, and may decline in late adulthood.
• Major issues in developmental psychology include nature vs. nurture, continuity vs. stages, and stability vs. change.
• Research Methods:
  • Cross-sectional studies
  • Longitudinal studies

Prenatal, Infancy and Childhood Development

• Prenatal stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal.
• Teratogens: Substances that can cause birth defects or developmental issues.
• Newborn reflexes: Help newborns survive and interact with their environment.
• Synaptic pruning: Eliminating unused neural connections for more efficient brain processing.
• Erikson's stages of psycho-social development in childhood.
• Piaget's stages of cognitive development.

Adolescence

• Adolescence is the transition from childhood to adulthood involving physical, cognitive, and social changes.
• Personal Fable: Belief in one's uniqueness and invincibility, which influences risky behavior.
• Imaginary Audience: Belief that others are constantly watching and judging.
• Kohlberg's stages of moral development.
• Erikson's identity vs. role confusion.

Adulthood and Aging

• Erikson's psychosocial development in adulthood (Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, Integrity vs. Despair).
• Menopause: End of menstruation. Andropause: Decline in testosterone.
• Cognitive decline in later adulthood. Factors that influence maintaining cognitive functions.
• Parenting styles.
• Kubler-Ross' five stages of grief.

Test your knowledge on various psychological perspectives, the contributions of key figures in psychology, and the ethical principles in psychological research. This quiz covers topics from major psychological schools to the roles of the Institutional Review Board and measures of central tendency.