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Defining Psychology Define psychology in your own words:​ Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including how individuals think, feel, and act. What two areas does it focus on? 1.​ Behavior – Observable actions, such as speaking, movement, and social interaction...

Defining Psychology Define psychology in your own words:​ Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, including how individuals think, feel, and act. What two areas does it focus on? 1.​ Behavior – Observable actions, such as speaking, movement, and social interactions. 2.​ Mental processes – Internal experiences, such as thoughts, emotions, and problem-solving. Examples: ​ A behavior psychologists might study: Aggression, social interactions, sleep patterns. ​ A mental process psychologists might study: Memory, decision-making, problem-solving. Psychology’s Roots Who is considered the "Father of Psychology"? ​ Wilhelm Wundt What major contribution did he make to the field that gave him this title? ​ He established the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, where he studied conscious experience using introspection. Focus of Early Schools of Thought: ​ Structuralism: Focused on breaking down mental processes into basic components using introspection. (Wundt, Titchener) ​ Functionalism: Emphasized how mental and behavioral processes function and help individuals adapt to their environment. (William James) ​ Behaviorism: Focused on observable behavior and how it is learned. (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner) ​ Psychoanalysis: Explored unconscious motives and conflicts, emphasizing childhood experiences. (Sigmund Freud) ​ Gestalt Psychology: Studied how people perceive and experience things as whole patterns rather than separate parts. (Max Wertheimer) Perspectives in Psychology Modern Perspectives in Psychology: 1.​ Biological Perspective – Examines the influence of biology, genetics, and the nervous system on behavior. 2.​ Cognitive Perspective – Studies how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. 3.​ Behavioral Perspective – Focuses on how external stimuli shape observable behavior. 4.​ Psychodynamic Perspective – Emphasizes unconscious drives and conflicts. 5.​ Humanistic Perspective – Focuses on free will, personal growth, and achieving potential. 6.​ Sociocultural Perspective – Examines how society and culture influence behavior. 7.​ Evolutionary Perspective – Explores how behavior has evolved for survival and adaptation. Which perspective would most likely focus on: ​ Observable behaviors: Behavioral perspective ​ Unconscious motives: Psychodynamic perspective ​ How people think, process, and store information: Cognitive perspective Critical Thinking in Psychology Four Key Elements of the Scientific Attitude: 1.​ Curiosity – Asking questions and being eager to learn. 2.​ Skepticism – Not accepting things at face value; questioning claims. 3.​ Humility – Recognizing that we may be wrong and being open to new evidence. 4.​ Critical Thinking – Analyzing and evaluating evidence before drawing conclusions. Why is critical thinking important in psychology? Provide an example.​ Critical thinking helps psychologists avoid biases, evaluate evidence objectively, and make informed decisions. Example: A researcher questions whether a new drug truly improves memory by analyzing multiple studies rather than relying on one report. Scientific Research and Methods What are the four goals of psychology as a science? 1.​ Describe – Observe and detail behaviors and mental processes.  2.​ Explain – Determine the causes of behaviors and thoughts. 3.​ Predict – Forecast how individuals may behave in certain situations. 4.​ Control – Modify behaviors to improve lives. Steps of the Scientific Method: 1.​ Identify a research question 2.​ Form a hypothesis 3.​ Design and conduct an experiment 4.​ Collect and analyze data 5.​ Draw conclusions 6.​ Share results Define the difference between: ​ Independent Variable: The factor that is manipulated in an experiment. ​ Dependent Variable: The factor that is measured to see the effect of the independent variable. Example of an experiment:​ A researcher tests whether sleep affects memory retention. ​ Independent variable: Hours of sleep. ​ Dependent variable: Test scores on a memory task. Research Methods Describe the following methods and their strengths/limitations: ​ Naturalistic Observation​ ○​ Strength: Realistic and natural behaviors. ○​ Limitation: Lack of control over variables. ​ Case Studies​ ○​ Strength: In-depth analysis of a single subject. ○​ Limitation: Cannot generalize findings. ​ Surveys​ ○​ Strength: Quick and easy data collection. ○​ Limitation: Potential for biased responses. Explain why correlation does not imply causation:​ Just because two variables are related does not mean one causes the other. Example of a spurious correlation:​ Ice cream sales and shark attacks both increase in summer, but ice cream does not cause shark attacks. Ethics in Psychology Ethical Principles in Psychological Research: ​ Rights and well-being of participants must be prioritized. ​ Informed consent is required. ​ Justification for any deception. ​ Participants may withdraw at any time. ​ Protection and disclosure of risks. ​ Debriefing of participants after the study. ​ Confidentiality of data. ​ Researchers must address and remove potential harm. Role of the Institutional Review Board (IRB):​ The IRB reviews and approves research studies to ensure ethical standards are met. Statistical Basics Define the following measures of central tendency. What is central tendency?​ Central tendency refers to statistical measures that summarize a dataset. ​ Mean: The average of a dataset. ​ Median: The middle value in a dataset. ​ Mode: The most frequently occurring value in a dataset. What are measures of variation?​ Measures of variation describe the spread of data, including range, variance, and standard deviation. The Building Blocks of the Brain What is the nervous system, and what does it do? Define the nervous system:​ The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that transmit signals between different parts of the body to coordinate actions and responses. List two functions it performs: 1.​ It controls bodily functions, including movement, sensation, and automatic responses. 2.​ It processes and interprets sensory information from the environment. Identify the parts of a neuron and their functions: ​ Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons. ​ Soma (Cell Body): Contains the nucleus and processes incoming signals. ​ Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body to other neurons or muscles. ​ Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons. What are glial cells, and what roles do they play?​ Glial cells support, nourish, and protect neurons. They also play a role in maintaining homeostasis and forming myelin. Name and describe two types of glial cells: 1.​ Astrocytes: Provide structural support and regulate the blood-brain barrier. 2.​ Schwann Cells: Form myelin in the peripheral nervous system to speed up signal transmission. Generating and Sending Messages What is an action potential, and how does it work?​ An action potential is an electrical signal that travels along the axon, triggered by a change in electrical charge across the cell membrane. What is the all-or-nothing principle?​ A neuron either fires at full strength or does not fire at all—there is no partial firing. Name and briefly describe the forces involved in the membrane potential: ​ Sodium-Potassium Pump: Maintains the resting potential by moving sodium out and potassium in. ​ Depolarization: Sodium ions rush in, making the inside of the neuron more positive. ​ Repolarization: Potassium ions exit, restoring a negative charge inside the neuron. Define the following terms related to synapses: ​ Synaptic Vesicles: Contain neurotransmitters for communication between neurons. ​ Neurotransmitter: A chemical messenger that transmits signals across the synaptic gap. ​ Synaptic Gap: The small space between neurons where neurotransmission occurs.  ​ Reuptake: The process of neurotransmitters being reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron. Neurotransmitters What is the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters? ​ Excitatory: Increase the likelihood of a neuron firing. ​ Inhibitory: Decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing. Match the neurotransmitters to its function or effect: ​ Serotonin: Mood regulation and sleep. ​ Dopamine: Reward, motivation, and movement. ​ GABA: Main inhibitory neurotransmitter, reduces neural activity. ​ Acetylcholine (Ach): Muscle contraction and learning. ​ Endorphins: Reduce pain and increase pleasure. Provide an example of a drug or substance that affects neurotransmission: ​ Name of drug or substance: SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors) ​ How does it work (agonist or antagonist)? Agonist—prevents reuptake, increasing serotonin levels. Looking at the Brain List and briefly describe two techniques used to study the brain: ​ Invasive technique: Deep Brain Stimulation—electrodes implanted in the brain to regulate activity. ​ Non-invasive technique: MRI—uses magnetic fields to create detailed images of brain structures. Compare and contrast these brain imaging techniques: ​ CT scan: Uses X-rays to create images of brain structures. ​ MRI: Uses magnetic fields for detailed images, providing higher resolution than CT scans. ​ EEG: Measures electrical activity in the brain, useful for studying brain waves. ​ fMRI: Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow. ​ PET: Uses a radioactive substance to observe metabolic processes in the brain. Brain Structures Describe the functions of the older brain structures: ​ Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex. ​ Pons: Helps regulate sleep and coordinate movement. ​ Medulla: Controls heart rate and breathing. What does the cerebellum do?​ The cerebellum coordinates movement, balance, and motor learning. Describe the functions of the limbic structures: ​ Amygdala: Processes emotions, particularly fear and aggression. ​ Hippocampus: Essential for memory formation. ​ Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and hormone control. Identify the four lobes of the brain and their primary functions: ​ Frontal lobe: Decision-making, planning, and motor control. ​ Parietal lobe: Processes sensory information like touch and spatial awareness. ​ Occipital lobe: Responsible for visual processing. ​ Temporal lobe: Involved in hearing, language comprehension, and memory. The Nervous System What are the two main divisions of the nervous system, and what do they include? ​ Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord. ​ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nerves outside the CNS, connecting it to the rest of the body. What is the difference between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems? ​ Somatic: Controls voluntary muscle movements. ​ Autonomic: Regulates involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion). Contrast the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system: ​ Sympathetic: Activates the "fight or flight" response. ​ Parasympathetic: Promotes "rest and digest" functions. Brain Plasticity Define plasticity and explain why it is important: ​ Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt in response to experience or injury. ​ Why is it important? It allows for learning, memory formation, and recovery from brain damage. Describe the case of Jody Miller:​ Jody Miller had a hemispherectomy (removal of one hemisphere of the brain) due to epilepsy. Her brain adapted, allowing her to function normally despite losing half of her brain. Understanding Human Development Define human development.​ Human development is the study of how people grow, change, and adapt across the lifespan, encompassing physical, cognitive, and social changes. What is the general trajectory of our abilities across the lifespan?​ Abilities develop rapidly in infancy and childhood, stabilize in adulthood, and may decline in late adulthood. Three Major Issues in Developmental Psychology: ​ Nature vs. Nurture: The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) plays a greater role in development. ​ Continuity vs. Stages: Whether development is a gradual process or occurs in distinct stages. ​ Stability vs. Change: Whether traits remain stable over time or change due to experiences. Research Methods in Developmental Psychology Differences Between: ​ Cross-sectional studies: Compare different age groups at one point in time. ​ Longitudinal studies: Follow the same individuals over a long period to observe changes. What is a cohort effect, and how can it impact research findings?​ A cohort effect occurs when differences between age groups result from historical or cultural influences rather than actual developmental changes. Prenatal Development Stages of Prenatal Development: ​ Germinal stage (weeks 1-2): Fertilization and cell division begin. ​ Embryonic stage (weeks 3-8): Major organs and structures form. ​ Fetal stage (months 2-9): Growth and maturation occur. What is a teratogen, and how does it impact development?​ A teratogen is any harmful substance (e.g., drugs, alcohol) that can cause birth defects or developmental issues. What is viability, and when can a fetus typically survive outside the womb?​ Viability is the ability of a fetus to survive outside the womb, typically around 24-25 weeks of gestation. Infancy and Childhood Newborn Reflexes and Their Purpose:​ Newborns have reflexes such as sucking, rooting, and grasping, which help them survive and interact with their environment. What is synaptic pruning, and why does it happen during early childhood?​ Synaptic pruning eliminates unused neural connections, making brain processing more efficient. Erikson’s Four Stages of Childhood: 1.​ Trust vs. Mistrust: Developing a sense of trust in caregivers. 2.​ Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: Learning independence. 3.​ Initiative vs. Guilt: Taking initiative in activities. 4.​ Industry vs. Inferiority: Developing competence and skills. Cognitive Development Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development:  ​ Sensorimotor Stage: Learning through senses and actions. ○​ Major Milestone: Object permanence. ​ Preoperational Stage: Development of symbolic thinking. ○​ Major Milestone: Egocentrism. ​ Concrete Operational Stage: Logical thinking about concrete objects. ○​ Major Milestone: Conservation. ​ Formal Operational Stage: Abstract and hypothetical thinking. ○​ Major Milestone: Moral reasoning. Define object permanence and egocentrism: ​ Object permanence: Understanding that objects exist even when not seen (sensorimotor stage). ​ Egocentrism: Difficulty in seeing things from others' perspectives (preoperational stage). Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development: ​ Scaffolding: Guidance from a more skilled individual to help a child learn. ​ Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): The difference between what a child can do alone vs. with help. Social and Emotional Development What is attachment, and why is it important?​ Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and caregiver, crucial for emotional and social development. Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles: ​ Secure attachment: Child feels safe and seeks comfort from caregiver. ​ Avoidant attachment: Child avoids or ignores caregiver. ​ Ambivalent attachment: Child is anxious and resistant. ​ Disorganized-disoriented attachment: Child shows confused or contradictory behaviors. Harlow’s Monkey Experiment:​ Harlow’s study demonstrated that monkeys prefer comfort over food, highlighting the importance of emotional security. Adolescence Define adolescence and describe major changes:​ Adolescence is the transition from childhood to adulthood, involving physical, cognitive, and social changes. Personal Fable:​ Belief in one’s uniqueness and invincibility, influencing risk-taking behavior. Imaginary Audience:​ The belief that others are constantly watching and judging, leading to self-consciousness. Kohlberg’s Moral Development Stages: ​ Preconventional: Based on consequences. ​ Conventional: Based on social rules. ​ Postconventional: Based on ethical principles. Erikson’s Main Psychosocial Challenge in Adolescence:​ Identity vs. Role Confusion—developing a personal identity. Adulthood and Aging Erikson’s Psychosocial Challenges in Adulthood: ​ Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation—forming close relationships. ​ Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation—contributing to society. ​ Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair—reflecting on life. What is menopause and andropause? ​ Menopause: The end of menstruation, typically in the late 40s-50s. ​ Andropause: A gradual decline in testosterone in men. Cognitive Functioning in Late Adulthood and Ways to Combat Decline:​ Memory declines, but cognitive exercise, social engagement, and physical activity help maintain function. Parenting Styles: ​ Authoritarian: Strict, high expectations, little warmth. ​ Authoritative: High expectations, but responsive and supportive. ​ Permissive: Lenient, indulgent, few rules. ​ Negligent: Uninvolved and indifferent. Kubler-Ross Five Stages of Grief: 1.​ Denial 2.​ Anger 3.​ Bargaining 4.​ Depression 5.​ Acceptance