Psychology of Self and Others in Childhood

Self-Understanding

• Children in middle to late childhood can describe themselves using psychological characteristics and traits.
• They recognize both positive and negative aspects of themselves.
• Children's descriptions involve comparing themselves to others.

Understanding Others

• Perspective taking: The ability to understand another person's thoughts and feelings.
• School-age children comprehend that others may have different perspectives.
• This helps them judge the intentions and actions of others.
• Children may become skeptical of others' claims.
• Perspective taking supports the development of prosocial behavior and empathy.

Self-Esteem and Self-Concept

• Self-esteem: Overall evaluation of oneself, also known as self-worth or self-image.
• Self-esteem is linked to secure attachments and sensitive caregiving from parents.
• Consistent care, like hugs, contributes to positive self-esteem.
• Self-esteem perceptions may not always be accurate, both positively and negatively.
• Children with high self-esteem may not necessarily perform better in school but show greater initiative.
• Self-concept: Domain-specific evaluations of oneself (academic, athletic, appearance, etc.).
• Overpraising mediocre performance can lead to inflated praise, which discourages children from embracing challenges.
• Praise children for their effort, not the outcome.
• Praising children for innate abilities can negatively impact them when they fail, as they might believe their success was solely due to natural talent.

Self-Efficacy

• Self-efficacy: Belief in one's ability to succeed in a situation and achieve positive outcomes.
• It influences children's choice of activities.
• Children with low self-efficacy may avoid learning and challenging tasks.

Self-Regulation

• Deliberate effort to manage behavior, emotions, and thoughts.
• Contributes to improved social competence, achievement, and conscientiousness.
• Connected to the development of the frontal lobe (thinking brain).
• Linked to warmth in parenting.

Industry vs. Inferiority

• Industry: Children develop an interest in how things work and are made.
• They acquire skills and accomplish tasks valued by society.
• They strive for recognition for their achievements.
• Parents who dismiss their children's endeavors as mischief lead to feelings of inferiority.
• Children want to feel competent (industry) but also acknowledge their limitations (inferiority).
• Significant Social Institution (SSI): School/community.
• Virtue: Competence.

Erikson's Stages of Development:

• Trust → Autonomy → Initiative → Industry

Emotional Development

• Improved understanding of complex emotions like pride and jealousy.
• Recognition that multiple emotions can be experienced simultaneously.
• Increased awareness of the events that trigger emotional reactions.
• Ability to control and conceal negative emotions.
• Capacity to redirect feelings.
• Empathy.

Coping with Stress

• Older children develop more coping strategies for stressful situations.
• They can analyze a stressful event and identify what they can control.
• Children who experience disasters may experience acute stress reactions, depression, panic disorder, or post-traumatic stress disorder.

Helping School-Age Children

• Reassure them repeatedly if necessary.
• Narrative Therapy: Encourage children to recount events to make sense of their experiences.
• Help children express their feelings.
• Assist them in understanding the event, especially if they blame themselves or fear its recurrence.

Morality

• Heinz Dilemma: A man steals medicine for his wife, raising ethical questions about morality.
• Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Development:
  • Level 1 (Preconventional): No internalization of moral rules. Focus on punishment and rewards.
  • Level 2 (Conventional): Internalization of moral standards from others. Importance of intentions.
  • Level 3 (Postconventional): Self-chosen principles guide moral decisions. Social rules are relative.