Psychology of Attitudes and Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance

• Festinger's theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce inconsistencies in their attitudes and behaviours.
• Blake's search for information about Macs after seeing a cheaper Dell ad exemplifies cognitive dissonance.

LaPiere's Study

• LaPiere's 1934 study showed that people's behaviour doesn't always match their stated attitudes.
• The study involved travelling across the US with a Chinese-American couple visiting various establishments.
• Only one establishment refused service to the couple.
• Later, LaPiere contacted these establishments to survey their attitudes towards Chinese guests.

Principle of Compatibility

• A person's attitude predicts their behaviour most accurately when both attitude and behaviour are measured in the same way.

Attitudes

• An attitude is an association between an act or object and an evaluation.

Autism and Theory of Mind

• Children with autism show impaired ability to understand others' mental states (theory of mind).

Prosocial Behaviour in Infants

• Infants develop helping behaviour before comforting behaviour.

Theory of Mind Example

• Krishna, in a puppet experiment, demonstrates theory of mind if he says the puppet doesn't know the house's colour. Otherwise, he doesn't have developed theory of mind.

Alternative Explanation for Helping Behaviour

• Matilda's peg-picking could be explained by her understanding of the association between a behaviour (dropping a peg) and an action required (picking up the peg).

Sally-Anne False Belief Task

• Ben, aged three and a half, is most likely to say Sally will look for the marble in the box.

Infant Temperament and Adult Personality

• Longitudinal studies show a moderate correlation (around 3) between infant temperament and adult personality.

Infant Depth Perception

• Infants develop a perception of depth by eight months of age.

Newborn Preferences and Nature

• Newborn infants prefer sweet tastes, demonstrating a nature-based explanation for development.

Habituation Paradigm

• The habituation paradigm, used to study baby face recognition, involves repeatedly showing a stimulus until the baby loses interest, then introducing a new stimulus to see if the baby shows renewed interest.

Moro Reflex

• The Moro reflex, checked during a one-month check-up, involves the infant spreading out its arms when "dropped" by the doctor.

Depression and Judgment Errors

• People with depression are more likely to exaggerate negative events in their lives.

Major Depressive Disorder Prevalence

• The 12-month prevalence rate of Major Depressive Disorder is 6%-10%.

Major Depressive Disorder Symptoms

• A diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder requires exhibiting five or more symptoms during a specific two-week period.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Depression

• CBT views depression as being maintained by a lack of positive reinforcement.

Double Depression

• Double depression involves a diagnosis of both Persistent Depressive Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder.

SORCK Analysis and Historical Stimuli

• Historical stimuli in SORCK analysis influence the likelihood of a behaviour but don't directly cause it.

SORCK Analysis in Therapy

• The SORCK model is used in therapy to understand the relationship between stimuli and behaviours.

Behavioural Therapy and Conditioning

• Behavioural therapy uses both classical and operant conditioning techniques.

Cognitive Restructuring in Therapy

• Cognitive Restructuring involves helping clients challenge and change negative thought patterns.

Psychodynamic Approach to Depression

• A psychodynamic approach to understanding depression focuses on the client's early childhood experiences.

Shooter's Bias

• Computer simulations show a bias in shooting unarmed Black men over unarmed White men, with the bias being comparable for both groups.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

• Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when expectations change interactions and, in turn, behaviour conforming to those expectations.

Stereotypes and Subtyping

• Stereotypes are generalised views about groups that often disregard individual differences, are resistant to new information, and can result in subtyping.

Stereotype Influence on Perceptions

• Stereotypes influence how information is perceived and recalled, as seen in Cohen's 1981 study involving video clips of a woman portrayed as a waitress vs waitress.

Psychoanalytic Theory of the Id

• The id is the instinctive component of the psyche operating solely according to the "pleasure principle".

Nomothetic Approach

• The nomothetic approach aims to identify general laws governing all individuals' behaviour.

Eysenck's Temperament Dimensions

• Eysenck identified three temperament dimensions: psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism.

Humanistic Approach and Self-Actualization

• The humanistic approach, stemming from Maslow, focuses on the expression of the tendency to strive for self-actualization.

Personality Assessment Tool

• The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a suitable tool for personality assessment, particularly for a 45-year-old female patient in a mental health facility.

Rorschach Projective Test Reliability and Validity

• The Rorschach test has low reliability and low validity when multiple researchers cannot agree on interpretation, and results don't align with other objective measures.

Definition of Personality

• Personality is a unique pattern of behaviour and thinking that remains consistent across time.

Psychoanalytic Theory of the Ego

• The ego is the decision-making part of the psyche operating according to the "reality principle."

Twin Studies and Personality

• Twin studies have shown that identical twins are more correlated in many personality dimensions than fraternal twins.

Resolving Id-Ego-Superego Conflict

• The ego uses defence mechanisms like denial or projection to resolve conflicts between the id and superego.

Object Permanence

• Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, which some babies lack.

Deferred Imitation and Mental Representation

• Deferred imitation in six-month-old infants shows that infants develop mental representations earlier than Piaget suggested.

Sociocultural Reasons for Abstract Problem Solving

• A 12-year-old's difficulty with abstract hypothetical reasoning could stem from differing education or schooling.

Piaget's Stages and Abstract Thinking

• Piaget differentiates developmental stages by the ability to process abstract concepts.

Piaget's Disequilibrium and New Experiences

• Disequilibrium in Piaget's theory is created by discrepancies between existing schemas (knowledge) and new experiences.

Dual Motivations in Ainsworth's Theory

• Ainsworth highlighted that infants have two motivations: exploration and security.

Secure Attachment

• A baby exhibiting distress at separation from their mother and preference for the mother over a stranger likely demonstrates a secure attachment style.

Bowlby's Purpose of Attachment

• Bowlby proposes that infant attachment increases the infant's chance of survival.

Critical Period

• A "critical period" is a specific window of time when a particular even must occur for development.

Attachment Behavioural System

• The attachment behavioural system, described by Bowlby, involves an infants' needs for physical proximity to their caregiver.

Kelley's Covariation Model - Situational Attribution

• Kelley's model implies that low consistency information supports a situational attribution.

Kelley's Covariation Model - Personal Attribution

• Low consensus information in Kelley's model points towards a personal attribution.

Availability Heuristic

• The availability heuristic suggests that people assess frequency based on how easily they can recall instances.

Stereotypes

• Stereotypes are oversimplified beliefs, often inaccurate, about groups and their members.

Kelley's Covariation Model - Target Attribution

• High distinctiveness in Kelley's model supports a target attribution.

Biological Basis of Aggression

• While biology influences aggression, social and cognitive factors are crucial.

Group Aggression and Psychoanalytic Theory

• Freud and Le Bon suggest that group aggression stems from the id.

Aggression and Violent Media

• Josephson's study indicated increased aggression in children after being exposed to violent TV content.

Social Cognitive Explanations for Aggression

• Social cognitive theory posits aggression develops due to maladaptive thought patterns.

Alcohol and Aggression

• Alcohol reduces sensitivity to environmental cues, impacting aggression differently.

Delusions of Grandeur in Schizophrenia

• Delusions of grandeur in schizophrenia involve beliefs of extreme fame, importance, or power.

Neurotransmitter Implication in Schizophrenia

• Dopamine is strongly linked to the development of schizophrenia.

Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

• Alogia and avolition are negative symptoms in schizophrenia.

Diathesis-Stress Model of Schizophrenia

• The diathesis-stress model describes schizophrenia as a combination of vulnerability and triggering stressors.

Tangentiality in Schizophrenia

• The example with Bill and his dog highlights tangentiality (shift in conversation).

Factor Analysis in Intelligence Testing

• Factor analysis identifies the number of factors needed to explain the variance in an intelligence test.

IQ Calculation and Adults

• The original IQ calculation formula showed decreasing intelligence with age which is not accurate.

Raven's Progressive Matrices

• Raven's Progressive Matrices measures the 'g' factor of intelligence.

Test Reliability and Validity

• Sam's new intelligence test exhibiting reliability but not validity means it's consistent but doesn't predict what it intends to.

Modern Intelligence Testing and Mental Age

• Modern intelligence tests, like Wechsler scales, consider an individual's position compared to same-age peers instead of mental age.

Kohlberg's Postconventional Morality

• Postconventional morality is determined by whether actions uphold self-chosen ethical standards.

Pre-conventional Morality Example

• The child reacting to Juliet stealing money showcases pre-conventional moral reasoning (focus on laws).

Post-conventional Response to Expensive Drug Pricing

• A post-conventional response to drug pricing would emphasize social responsibility and access for everyone.

Pre-conventional Stage and Rules in Children

• The child upset by rule-breaking is likely in Kohlberg pre-conventional stage.

Parenting Styles – Authoritarian

• Authoritarian parenting prioritizes obedience and respect for authority over discussion.

Language Acquisition in Infants

• Infants understand language before they speak.

Overextension Error in Language Development

• An overextension error in language is applying a word to a broader range than appropriate.

Genie's Language Development and Critical Period

• Genie's language development challenges suggests a likely critical period for language acquisition.

Telegraphic Speech

• Telegraphic speech, for example in a 18-month-old's "drink milk", reflects a basic understanding of grammar.

Elevator Conformity

• People in crowded elevators are more likely to face the wrong way when others do.

Compliance Principles

• Cialdini's principles of compliance include reciprocation, consistency, social validation, liking, scarcity, and authority.

Milgram's Obedience Studies

• Milgram's obedience studies reveal that situational pressures can lead people to extreme behaviours.

Persuasion Tactics – Door-in-the-Face

• The door-in-the-face tactic involves making a large request initially, then lowering the request.

Persuasion Tactics – Foot-in-the-Door

• The foot-in-the-door technique involves a series of requests, starting small then increasing.

Reciprocation Norm and Compliance

• The reciprocation norm influences compliance because a perceived act of kindness from someone increases the likelihood of complying with a request.

Asch's Conformity Study

• Asch's conformity study showed people conform to incorrect answers given by confederates.

Reciprocation and Compliance

• Participants in Regan's (1971) experiment were more likely to buy raffle tickets when a confederate gave them a drink.

Commitment for Influence

• Commitment is most effective when active, effortful, public, and voluntary

Milgram's Studies – Obedience

• Milgram's studies highlight the potential for individuals to act cruelly when situational pressures allow.

James Marcia's Identity Statuses – Foreclosure

• Tahlia, committed to following her mother's career path, exemplifies the foreclosure identity status.

Synaptic Pruning

• Synaptic pruning is the brain's process of eliminating unused connections.

Puberty Timing and Long-Term Advantage

• Girls who experience later puberty may benefit with respect to higher education attainment.

Early Puberty and Self-Assurance

• Early puberty is associated with increased self-assurance for boys.

Growth Spurt Timing

• Boys generally experience the growth spurt of puberty before girls.

Social Judgment and Assumptions

• People make assumptions about others based on appearance, clothes, and body language.

Nonverbal Communication in Social Contexts

• People are more likely to rely on subtle nonverbal information in social contexts.

Nonverbal Communication Roles

• Emblems can be used to insult, give directions or signal departure.

Nonverbal Communication Sources

• Nonverbal communication is conveyed through various means such as facial expressions, voice tone, and attire.

Percentage of Nonverbal Communication

• About 60-65% of information and meaning is conveyed nonverbally.

Selective Optimisation with Compensation—Successful Ageing

• Successful ageing, according to this model, involves selection (reduced performance), optimisation (maintaining remaining abilities), and compensation (strategies).

Midlife Re-evaluation

• Cohen's midlife re-evaluation phase is characterized by a desire for new challenges.

Successful Ageing Factors

• Maintaining contact with family and friends, protecting against diseases plus physical and mental activity are related to successful ageing.

Agreeableness and Consciouness in Older Adults

• Older adults, generally, tend to have higher levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory—Social Time

• Socioemotional selectivity theory proposes that time spent with individuals is prioritised based on value.

Self and Society

• The self emerges from interactions, opportunities available in society and how you choose to act in that society.

Self-Esteem Confusion

• Low self-esteem can involve uncertainty about one's self.

Self-Evaluations and False Uniqueness

• We tend to perceive our own opinions and abilities more favourably.

Stress and Immune Function

• Stress suppresses immune system functioning.

Constructive Coping

• Constructive coping involves task-oriented behaviours in response to stress, also includes stress management techniques.

Choking Under Pressure

• Choking occurs when heightened awareness of bodily functions impairs performance.

General Adaptation Syndrome – Exhaustion

• The exhaustion phase of the General Adaptation Syndrome sees the body's resources depleted because of chronic stress responses.

Stress and Perceived Stress

• Stress is highly subjective and varies depending on an individual.

Psychiatric Disorders in Late Life

• Anxiety is the most common psychiatric disorder after dementia in later life.

Primary Ageing

• Primary ageing includes gradual deterioration. The example of Leonard's sight decline showcases primary ageing

Cohort Effect

• Cohorts (people in the same time period) tend to experience similar events and have shared outlooks.

Risk Factors for Depression in Older Adults

• Risk factors such as poverty or disease are not included as common contributors to depression in older adults.

Secondary Ageing

• Secondary ageing is caused by disease and trauma rather than biological factors.