Psychology of Attitudes and Dissonance

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Questions and Answers

What is the effect of stress on immune system functioning?

It has no effect on immune response.

It enhances immune response.

It temporarily boosts immune response.

It suppresses immune response. (correct)

What characterizes constructive coping?

Avoidance of the stressor altogether.

Focusing solely on task completion.

Emotional expression without active problem solving.

Being task-oriented and preparing the body for stress. (correct)

What does choking under pressure refer to in Sue's situation?

Becoming excessively self-aware during a crucial moment. (correct)

Becoming overly self-critical during a performance.

Underperforming in a relaxed situation.

Feeling overconfident before a performance.

During the exhaustion stage of Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome, what is likely to happen to the body?

The organs become impaired. Signup and view all the answers

What is a cohort effect?

Shared life experiences among people of the same age group. Signup and view all the answers

What motivates a person to change their attitude according to cognitive dissonance theory?

To reduce inconsistency Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be drawn from LaPiere's 1934 study on people's behavior and feelings?

People's behavior is not always consistent with the way they really feel. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Principle of Compatibility state?

Behavior and attitudes must be measured in the same way for prediction. Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely explanation for Matilda's behavior of picking up the dropped peg?

She has an understanding of an association between a behavior and an action. Signup and view all the answers

What might indicate that a child has developed theory of mind when asked about the puppet's knowledge of the house's color?

Saying the puppet does not know the color Signup and view all the answers

When do infants generally develop helping behavior in relation to comforting behavior?

They develop helping behavior before comforting behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes an attitude in psychological terms?

An association between an act or object and an evaluation Signup and view all the answers

What is a common implication of deficiency in theory of mind among children with autism?

Impaired ability to make inferences about others' mental states Signup and view all the answers

What is the main implication of findings from longitudinal studies of infants' temperaments?

Infant temperament is moderately correlated with adult personality. Signup and view all the answers

What reflex is the doctor checking when pretending to drop an infant?

Moro Reflex Signup and view all the answers

In what timeframe must 5 or more symptoms be demonstrated for a diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder?

2 weeks Signup and view all the answers

What type of approach does a clinical psychologist take when explaining depression in terms of early childhood experiences?

Psychodynamic Approach Signup and view all the answers

What does the SORCK analysis help to understand in the therapeutic process?

The relationship between stimuli and response Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of a 'self-fulfilling prophecy'?

When expectations reshape behavior through interactions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true regarding the shooter’s bias observed in a computer simulation?

It is just as strong for Blacks as it is for Whites. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of personality does the nomothetic approach primarily seek to identify?

General laws governing behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes object permanence in infants?

Recognizing the continued existence of an object even when out of sight. Signup and view all the answers

What finding is typically associated with newborn infants' taste preferences?

A preference for sweet tastes. Signup and view all the answers

What does cognitive restructuring in therapy typically involve?

Comparing disempowering thoughts with evidence. Signup and view all the answers

At what age do infants typically develop a perception of depth?

8 months Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concepts of classical and operant conditioning in Behavioral Therapy?

They are essential processes in understanding behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What can be concluded about infants regarding language acquisition?

Infants can understand language but cannot speak it. Signup and view all the answers

What leads to overextension errors in children?

Applying a word too broadly to various items. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Genie learning to speak after age 13?

It demonstrates the necessity of exposure to language during a critical developmental period. Signup and view all the answers

What does telegraphic speech primarily demonstrate in children's language development?

Understanding of basic grammar. Signup and view all the answers

Which principle of compliance does the 'door-in-the-face' technique rely upon?

Reciprocation. Signup and view all the answers

How does the foot-in-the-door technique function in persuasion?

By agreeing to a small request to later secure compliance for a larger one. Signup and view all the answers

According to Asch's conformity studies, what do individuals tend to do in a group if they hear incorrect answers?

Conform to the incorrect answers provided by others. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the impact of Milgram's studies on obedience?

Ordinary individuals have the potential to perform cruel acts under certain contexts. Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the term 'synaptic pruning'?

The elimination of unused synapses to improve efficiency. Signup and view all the answers

What psychological benefit might a girl who is late to go through puberty experience in adulthood?

Greater educational attainment. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is considered important for successful aging according to Rowe and Kahn?

Maintaining physical activity and social contact. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of the midlife re-evaluation phase according to Gene Cohen?

Need for new challenges and complexity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary motivation for infants in their attachment behavior according to Bowlby?

Increase likelihood of survival Signup and view all the answers

How does the Socioemotional Selectivity Theory explain the social circles of older adults?

They focus on relationships that provide emotional satisfaction. Signup and view all the answers

According to Piaget, what is the significant difference in cognitive abilities between a child in the Concrete Operational Stage and one in the Formal Operational Stage?

The ability to solve abstract problems Signup and view all the answers

Which describes a characteristic of stereotypes?

Inflexible and resistant to new information Signup and view all the answers

What does the diathesis-stress model of schizophrenia suggest?

Biological and environmental factors interact to trigger schizophrenia Signup and view all the answers

In moral development, what signifies a post-conventional level of understanding?

Upholding self-chosen ethical standards Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of factor analysis in intelligence testing?

Determine the number of factors needed to describe intelligence Signup and view all the answers

What does alogia indicate in schizophrenia?

Reduced speech output Signup and view all the answers

How does the availability heuristic influence our judgments about events?

By basing judgments on easily recalled instances Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style is indicated by a child who shows distress upon separation from their caregiver?

Secure Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'critical period' refer to in development?

An optimal window for learning specific functions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a situational attribution according to Kelley's covariation model?

High distinctiveness in behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which response reflects maladaptive thinking patterns according to social cognitive theories of aggression?

Development of aggressive tendencies Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of high reliability but low validity in Sam's intelligence test?

The test fails to measure what it purports to evaluate Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Cognitive Dissonance

Festinger's theory proposes that people are motivated to reduce inconsistencies in their attitudes and behaviours.
Blake's search for information about Macs after seeing a cheaper Dell ad exemplifies cognitive dissonance.

LaPiere's Study

LaPiere's 1934 study showed that people's behaviour doesn't always match their stated attitudes.
The study involved travelling across the US with a Chinese-American couple visiting various establishments.
Only one establishment refused service to the couple.
Later, LaPiere contacted these establishments to survey their attitudes towards Chinese guests.

Principle of Compatibility

A person's attitude predicts their behaviour most accurately when both attitude and behaviour are measured in the same way.

Attitudes

An attitude is an association between an act or object and an evaluation.

Autism and Theory of Mind

Children with autism show impaired ability to understand others' mental states (theory of mind).

Prosocial Behaviour in Infants

Infants develop helping behaviour before comforting behaviour.

Theory of Mind Example

Krishna, in a puppet experiment, demonstrates theory of mind if he says the puppet doesn't know the house's colour. Otherwise, he doesn't have developed theory of mind.

Alternative Explanation for Helping Behaviour

Matilda's peg-picking could be explained by her understanding of the association between a behaviour (dropping a peg) and an action required (picking up the peg).

Sally-Anne False Belief Task

Ben, aged three and a half, is most likely to say Sally will look for the marble in the box.

Infant Temperament and Adult Personality

Longitudinal studies show a moderate correlation (around 3) between infant temperament and adult personality.

Infant Depth Perception

Infants develop a perception of depth by eight months of age.

Newborn Preferences and Nature

Newborn infants prefer sweet tastes, demonstrating a nature-based explanation for development.

Habituation Paradigm

The habituation paradigm, used to study baby face recognition, involves repeatedly showing a stimulus until the baby loses interest, then introducing a new stimulus to see if the baby shows renewed interest.

Moro Reflex

The Moro reflex, checked during a one-month check-up, involves the infant spreading out its arms when "dropped" by the doctor.

Depression and Judgment Errors

People with depression are more likely to exaggerate negative events in their lives.

Major Depressive Disorder Prevalence

The 12-month prevalence rate of Major Depressive Disorder is 6%-10%.

Major Depressive Disorder Symptoms

A diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder requires exhibiting five or more symptoms during a specific two-week period.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) and Depression

CBT views depression as being maintained by a lack of positive reinforcement.

Double Depression

Double depression involves a diagnosis of both Persistent Depressive Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder.

SORCK Analysis and Historical Stimuli

Historical stimuli in SORCK analysis influence the likelihood of a behaviour but don't directly cause it.

SORCK Analysis in Therapy

The SORCK model is used in therapy to understand the relationship between stimuli and behaviours.

Behavioural Therapy and Conditioning

Behavioural therapy uses both classical and operant conditioning techniques.

Cognitive Restructuring in Therapy

Cognitive Restructuring involves helping clients challenge and change negative thought patterns.

Psychodynamic Approach to Depression

A psychodynamic approach to understanding depression focuses on the client's early childhood experiences.

Shooter's Bias

Computer simulations show a bias in shooting unarmed Black men over unarmed White men, with the bias being comparable for both groups.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when expectations change interactions and, in turn, behaviour conforming to those expectations.

Stereotypes and Subtyping

Stereotypes are generalised views about groups that often disregard individual differences, are resistant to new information, and can result in subtyping.

Stereotype Influence on Perceptions

Stereotypes influence how information is perceived and recalled, as seen in Cohen's 1981 study involving video clips of a woman portrayed as a waitress vs waitress.

Psychoanalytic Theory of the Id

The id is the instinctive component of the psyche operating solely according to the "pleasure principle".

Nomothetic Approach

The nomothetic approach aims to identify general laws governing all individuals' behaviour.

Eysenck's Temperament Dimensions

Eysenck identified three temperament dimensions: psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism.

Humanistic Approach and Self-Actualization

The humanistic approach, stemming from Maslow, focuses on the expression of the tendency to strive for self-actualization.

Personality Assessment Tool

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a suitable tool for personality assessment, particularly for a 45-year-old female patient in a mental health facility.

Rorschach Projective Test Reliability and Validity

The Rorschach test has low reliability and low validity when multiple researchers cannot agree on interpretation, and results don't align with other objective measures.

Definition of Personality

Personality is a unique pattern of behaviour and thinking that remains consistent across time.

Psychoanalytic Theory of the Ego

The ego is the decision-making part of the psyche operating according to the "reality principle."

Twin Studies and Personality

Twin studies have shown that identical twins are more correlated in many personality dimensions than fraternal twins.

Resolving Id-Ego-Superego Conflict

The ego uses defence mechanisms like denial or projection to resolve conflicts between the id and superego.

Object Permanence

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight, which some babies lack.

Deferred Imitation and Mental Representation

Deferred imitation in six-month-old infants shows that infants develop mental representations earlier than Piaget suggested.

Sociocultural Reasons for Abstract Problem Solving

A 12-year-old's difficulty with abstract hypothetical reasoning could stem from differing education or schooling.

Piaget's Stages and Abstract Thinking

Piaget differentiates developmental stages by the ability to process abstract concepts.

Piaget's Disequilibrium and New Experiences

Disequilibrium in Piaget's theory is created by discrepancies between existing schemas (knowledge) and new experiences.

Dual Motivations in Ainsworth's Theory

Ainsworth highlighted that infants have two motivations: exploration and security.

Secure Attachment

A baby exhibiting distress at separation from their mother and preference for the mother over a stranger likely demonstrates a secure attachment style.

Bowlby's Purpose of Attachment

Bowlby proposes that infant attachment increases the infant's chance of survival.

Critical Period

A "critical period" is a specific window of time when a particular even must occur for development.

Attachment Behavioural System

The attachment behavioural system, described by Bowlby, involves an infants' needs for physical proximity to their caregiver.

Kelley's Covariation Model - Situational Attribution

Kelley's model implies that low consistency information supports a situational attribution.

Kelley's Covariation Model - Personal Attribution

Low consensus information in Kelley's model points towards a personal attribution.

Availability Heuristic

The availability heuristic suggests that people assess frequency based on how easily they can recall instances.

Stereotypes

Stereotypes are oversimplified beliefs, often inaccurate, about groups and their members.

Kelley's Covariation Model - Target Attribution

High distinctiveness in Kelley's model supports a target attribution.

Biological Basis of Aggression

While biology influences aggression, social and cognitive factors are crucial.

Group Aggression and Psychoanalytic Theory

Freud and Le Bon suggest that group aggression stems from the id.

Aggression and Violent Media

Josephson's study indicated increased aggression in children after being exposed to violent TV content.

Social cognitive theory posits aggression develops due to maladaptive thought patterns.

Alcohol and Aggression

Alcohol reduces sensitivity to environmental cues, impacting aggression differently.

Delusions of Grandeur in Schizophrenia

Delusions of grandeur in schizophrenia involve beliefs of extreme fame, importance, or power.

Neurotransmitter Implication in Schizophrenia

Dopamine is strongly linked to the development of schizophrenia.

Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia

Alogia and avolition are negative symptoms in schizophrenia.

Diathesis-Stress Model of Schizophrenia

The diathesis-stress model describes schizophrenia as a combination of vulnerability and triggering stressors.

Tangentiality in Schizophrenia

The example with Bill and his dog highlights tangentiality (shift in conversation).

Factor Analysis in Intelligence Testing

Factor analysis identifies the number of factors needed to explain the variance in an intelligence test.

IQ Calculation and Adults

The original IQ calculation formula showed decreasing intelligence with age which is not accurate.

Raven's Progressive Matrices

Raven's Progressive Matrices measures the 'g' factor of intelligence.

Test Reliability and Validity

Sam's new intelligence test exhibiting reliability but not validity means it's consistent but doesn't predict what it intends to.

Modern Intelligence Testing and Mental Age

Modern intelligence tests, like Wechsler scales, consider an individual's position compared to same-age peers instead of mental age.

Kohlberg's Postconventional Morality

Postconventional morality is determined by whether actions uphold self-chosen ethical standards.

Pre-conventional Morality Example

The child reacting to Juliet stealing money showcases pre-conventional moral reasoning (focus on laws).

Post-conventional Response to Expensive Drug Pricing

A post-conventional response to drug pricing would emphasize social responsibility and access for everyone.

Pre-conventional Stage and Rules in Children

The child upset by rule-breaking is likely in Kohlberg pre-conventional stage.

Parenting Styles – Authoritarian

Authoritarian parenting prioritizes obedience and respect for authority over discussion.

Language Acquisition in Infants

Infants understand language before they speak.

Overextension Error in Language Development

An overextension error in language is applying a word to a broader range than appropriate.

Genie's Language Development and Critical Period

Genie's language development challenges suggests a likely critical period for language acquisition.

Telegraphic Speech

Telegraphic speech, for example in a 18-month-old's "drink milk", reflects a basic understanding of grammar.

Elevator Conformity

People in crowded elevators are more likely to face the wrong way when others do.

Compliance Principles

Cialdini's principles of compliance include reciprocation, consistency, social validation, liking, scarcity, and authority.

Milgram's Obedience Studies

Milgram's obedience studies reveal that situational pressures can lead people to extreme behaviours.

Persuasion Tactics – Door-in-the-Face

The door-in-the-face tactic involves making a large request initially, then lowering the request.

Persuasion Tactics – Foot-in-the-Door

The foot-in-the-door technique involves a series of requests, starting small then increasing.

Reciprocation Norm and Compliance

The reciprocation norm influences compliance because a perceived act of kindness from someone increases the likelihood of complying with a request.

Asch's Conformity Study

Asch's conformity study showed people conform to incorrect answers given by confederates.

Reciprocation and Compliance

Participants in Regan's (1971) experiment were more likely to buy raffle tickets when a confederate gave them a drink.

Commitment for Influence

Commitment is most effective when active, effortful, public, and voluntary

Milgram's Studies – Obedience

Milgram's studies highlight the potential for individuals to act cruelly when situational pressures allow.

James Marcia's Identity Statuses – Foreclosure

Tahlia, committed to following her mother's career path, exemplifies the foreclosure identity status.

Synaptic Pruning

Synaptic pruning is the brain's process of eliminating unused connections.

Puberty Timing and Long-Term Advantage

Girls who experience later puberty may benefit with respect to higher education attainment.

Early Puberty and Self-Assurance

Early puberty is associated with increased self-assurance for boys.

Growth Spurt Timing

Boys generally experience the growth spurt of puberty before girls.

People make assumptions about others based on appearance, clothes, and body language.

People are more likely to rely on subtle nonverbal information in social contexts.

Nonverbal Communication Roles

Emblems can be used to insult, give directions or signal departure.

Nonverbal Communication Sources

Nonverbal communication is conveyed through various means such as facial expressions, voice tone, and attire.

Percentage of Nonverbal Communication

About 60-65% of information and meaning is conveyed nonverbally.

Selective Optimisation with Compensation—Successful Ageing

Successful ageing, according to this model, involves selection (reduced performance), optimisation (maintaining remaining abilities), and compensation (strategies).

Midlife Re-evaluation

Cohen's midlife re-evaluation phase is characterized by a desire for new challenges.

Successful Ageing Factors

Maintaining contact with family and friends, protecting against diseases plus physical and mental activity are related to successful ageing.

Agreeableness and Consciouness in Older Adults

Older adults, generally, tend to have higher levels of agreeableness and conscientiousness.

Socioemotional Selectivity Theory—Social Time

Socioemotional selectivity theory proposes that time spent with individuals is prioritised based on value.

Self and Society

The self emerges from interactions, opportunities available in society and how you choose to act in that society.

Self-Esteem Confusion

Low self-esteem can involve uncertainty about one's self.

Self-Evaluations and False Uniqueness

We tend to perceive our own opinions and abilities more favourably.

Stress and Immune Function

Stress suppresses immune system functioning.

Constructive Coping

Constructive coping involves task-oriented behaviours in response to stress, also includes stress management techniques.

Choking Under Pressure

Choking occurs when heightened awareness of bodily functions impairs performance.

General Adaptation Syndrome – Exhaustion

The exhaustion phase of the General Adaptation Syndrome sees the body's resources depleted because of chronic stress responses.

Stress and Perceived Stress

Stress is highly subjective and varies depending on an individual.

Psychiatric Disorders in Late Life

Anxiety is the most common psychiatric disorder after dementia in later life.

Primary Ageing

Primary ageing includes gradual deterioration. The example of Leonard's sight decline showcases primary ageing

Cohort Effect

Cohorts (people in the same time period) tend to experience similar events and have shared outlooks.

Risk Factors for Depression in Older Adults

Risk factors such as poverty or disease are not included as common contributors to depression in older adults.

Secondary Ageing

Secondary ageing is caused by disease and trauma rather than biological factors.

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Description

This quiz explores key concepts in psychology, focusing on cognitive dissonance, LaPiere's study about attitudes and behavior, and the principle of compatibility. Additionally, it delves into the challenges faced by children with autism regarding theory of mind. Test your understanding of these critical psychological theories and their implications.