Psychology Motivation Theories

Motivation

Motivation is the force that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Drive-Reduction Theory:
- Needs: Physiological requirements for survival (e.g., food, water, shelter).
- Drives: Internal states of tension that arise from unmet needs and motivate behaviors to reduce that tension (e.g., hunger, thirst).
- Drive Reduction: The process of satisfying a need and reducing the associated drive.
- Homeostasis: The body's tendency to maintain a stable internal environment.
Incentives: External stimuli that motivate behaviors, often associated with rewards or punishments.
Arousal Theory: Suggests people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal (neither too high nor too low).
- Arousal: Our state of alertness and excitement.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: A theory that suggests humans have a hierarchy of needs, starting with basic physiological needs and climbing to self-actualization.
- Basic (lowest level): Physiological needs (food, water, warmth, rest) and Safety needs (security, stability).
- Highest Level: Self-actualization needs (fulfilling one's potential). According to Maslow, satisfying lower-level needs before focusing on higher-level needs makes sense.
Physiological Effects of Hunger: When hungry, blood sugar levels decrease, which triggers the release of hormones like ghrelin, stimulating appetite and increasing hunger pangs.
Ostracism: Being excluded or ignored by others, which can lead to feelings of loneliness and isolation. Can be very distressing.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion: Suggests that physiological arousal precedes and triggers emotion. We experience physiological changes like increased heart rate, then label those changes as emotions.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion: Proposes that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, but independently. They are not causally linked. Your body reacts and you experience it.
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion: Explains that emotions involve both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal. We experience physiological arousal, then cognitively label that arousal based on our understanding of the situation, resulting in our emotion. You feel, then think.
The Spillover Effect: The tendency for our emotional responses to carry over from one situation to another.
Facial Expressions of Emotions: While some basic facial expressions (joy, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise) are recognized across cultures, the intensity and display rules may vary. Cultural nuances exist in how people express and interpret emotions.
The Facial Feedback Effect: Holds that our facial expressions can influence our emotional experiences. For example, forcing a smile might actually make you feel happier.

Pessimism

Pessimism: A negative outlook on life, often characterized by expecting the worst to happen and focusing on potential problems or failures.
Personality: An individual's characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. These include their unique traits, attitudes, and motivations.
Freud's Unconscious: An inaccessible part of the mind containing repressed memories, desires, and instincts that still influences conscious thoughts and behaviors.
Accessing the Unconscious: According to Freud, we can access the unconscious through:
- Dreams: Revealing repressed desires and anxieties. Dreams are like wish fulfillment or symbolic representations of unconscious desires.
- Free Association: A technique involving saying whatever comes to mind without censoring, allowing unconscious material to surface.
ID, EGO, SUPEREGO:
- ID: The instinctual part of the personality that seeks immediate gratification of basic needs (e.g., hunger, aggression). It operates on the pleasure principle.
- EGO: The rational part of the personality, mediating between the ID's desires and the demands of reality. It operates on the reality principle.
- SUPEREGO: The moral part of the personality that represents societal rules and values. It strives for perfection and can lead to feelings of guilt or shame.
Defense Mechanism: Unconscious psychological strategies used to protect the ego from anxiety and to maintain a positive self-image.
- Projection: Attributing one's own undesirable traits or impulses to others. Example: Someone who gossips a lot may accuse others of always talking about them.
- Displacement: Shifting emotional reactions from a threatening target to a less threatening one. Example: Being angry at your boss, but taking it out on a coworker.
Rorschach Test: A projective test that involves interpreting ambiguous inkblots. It's believed to reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings.

Personality

Eysenck Personality Scale: Assesses two major dimensions:
- Introversion-Extroversion: Introverts are typically solitary, prefer quiet activities and smaller groups, while extroverts are sociable, enjoy large gatherings, and seek excitement.
- Neuroticism-Stability: Neurotics are more anxious, moody, and reactive to stress, while stabiles are more calm, even-tempered, and emotionally resilient.
The Big Five Personality Traits:
- Conscientiousness: Organized, disciplined, and reliable.
- Agreeableness: Cooperative, trusting, and empathetic.
- Neuroticism: Prone to anxiety, sadness, and negative emotions.
- Openness to Experience: Curious, imaginative, and open-minded.
- Extroversion: Outgoing, assertive, and enjoys social interactions.

Stress

Stress: A state of mental and emotional strain or tension resulting from challenging or demanding circumstances.
Stress Reaction: The body's physiological and psychological response to a stressful situation.
Stress Appraisal: The process of evaluating a situation to determine its potential threat or challenge.
- For example, students taking an exam may have different stress appraisals. Some may find it challenging but manageable, while others may see it as a major threat.
Stress Management Techniques: Include:
- Exercise: Physical activity can reduce stress hormones and improve mood.
- Relaxation Techniques: Meditation, deep breathing, and progressive muscle relaxation.
- Social Support: Connecting with friends and family.
- Mindfulness: Paying attention to the present moment without judgment.
Benefits of Aerobic Exercise: Raises the body's metabolism, helps you sleep better, increases serotonin levels, and can reduce the negative effects of stress.
Optimistic Outlook: Helps people cope with stress by:
- Framing events in a positive light.
- Finding meaning amidst challenges.
- Building resilience.