Psychology: Memory Processes and Models

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Questions and Answers

What is the correct order of the phases in a memory task?

Consolidation, Encoding, Retrieval

Encoding, Retrieval, Consolidation

Retrieval, Encoding, Retention

Encoding, Retention, Retrieval (correct)

Which type of memory includes procedural memory?

Implicit memory (correct)

Episodic memory

Semantic memory

Explicit memory

What is the primary function of the short-term memory (STM)?

To store unlimited information for long periods

To encode sensory information directly for memory

To rehearse important information for longer retention (correct)

To provide immediate and permanent storage

Which of the following is NOT a method used to examine memory?

Simulation testing Signup and view all the answers

During which memory phase is information lost if not attended to?

Encoding phase Signup and view all the answers

What type of information is classified as echoic?

Auditory information retained temporarily Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the Atkinson and Shiffrin model is responsible for the temporary storage of sensory information?

Sensory memory Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding long-term memory (LTM)?

LTM can lose information if it is not retrieved regularly Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly differentiates episodic and semantic memory?

Episodic memory involves recall of specific events, while semantic memory is about the meanings of words. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary limitation found in Averbach's replication of Jevon's experiment?

Accuracy did not exceed eight items regardless of exposure time. Signup and view all the answers

In Sperling's 1960 experiment, what conclusion can be drawn about iconic memory?

Decay in iconic memory occurs rapidly, leading to missed information. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'decay' refer to in the context of iconic memory?

The rapid loss of visual information upon exposure once the stimulus is removed. Signup and view all the answers

Which research question raised by Nairne in 2003 challenges the conventional model of sensory memory?

Is sensory memory actually a part of short-term memory? Signup and view all the answers

What happens to information in short-term memory (STM) if it is not rehearsed?

It is lost and not transferred to LTM Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon explains why people remember the first items in a list better than those in the middle?

Primacy effect Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the recency effect in memory recall?

It is dependent on immediate recall after learning Signup and view all the answers

Which type of amnesia is characterized by the inability to form new memories following a trauma?

Anterograde amnesia Signup and view all the answers

Which component of Baddeley and Hitch's working memory model is responsible for monitoring and controlling the storage systems?

Central Executive Signup and view all the answers

Neurophysiological studies on patients with medial temporal lobe damage show that they have which of the following abilities?

Impaired long-term memory but intact short-term memory Signup and view all the answers

Evidence suggesting that STM might have more than one system is primarily supported by problems observed in which task type?

Digit span task Signup and view all the answers

Which type of information is retained better in the visuospatial sketchpad compared to the phonological loop?

Spatial navigation tasks Signup and view all the answers

What does the Dual Task Paradigm suggest about verbal and visuospatial information?

Visuospatial information is processed by separate systems from verbal information. Signup and view all the answers

According to Della Sala et al. (1999), how should the visuospatial unit be categorized?

Divided into visual and spatial components. Signup and view all the answers

What does the phonological similarity effect indicate about memory recall?

Words that sound similar interfere with each other's recall. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the word length effect when rehearsal is suppressed?

There is no significant difference in recall between long and short words. Signup and view all the answers

How does Baddeley's definition of the central executive differ from others?

It is likened to a CEO making decisions. Signup and view all the answers

What new component did Baddeley introduce to the working memory model in 2000?

The episodic buffer. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of memory models, what does the dual component model propose?

There are two components in memory: primary and secondary. Signup and view all the answers

Which alternative view of short-term memory suggests it's part of long-term memory?

Embedded process model. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the transition of information from episodic to semantic memory?

It allows for the forgetting of specific learning details. Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'memory savings' imply in the context of learning?

Relearning information takes less time due to prior exposure. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the findings related to spaced learning?

It results in better retention over time. Signup and view all the answers

According to the forgetting curve, how is the retention of information affected over time?

Retention decreases steadily with time without rehearsal. Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the trend observed in Bahrick's research regarding recognition over time?

An initial rapid decline followed by stabilization Signup and view all the answers

What does the power equation proposed by Wixted suggest about information retention?

Retention can be modeled with a nonlinear equation. Signup and view all the answers

How does the approach of retrieval practice differ from additional learning sessions?

Retrieval practice enhances recall more than extra study sessions. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT considered to influence how long a person can remember personal experiences, according to Rubin et al.?

Frequency of recall Signup and view all the answers

Ebbinghaus's research primarily utilized what type of information for his studies?

Nonsense syllables. Signup and view all the answers

What was the recognition rate found by Standing when presenting pictures and printed words?

83% Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes implicit memory from explicit memory?

Implicit memory is generally non-verbal and automatic. Signup and view all the answers

According to Konkle et al., how does the category size affect memory performance?

Smaller categories produce better recall Signup and view all the answers

What does the retention curve for autobiographical memories suggest about memory decline?

It follows a power function showing rapid decline Signup and view all the answers

What finding associated with identification memory was noted by Bahrick et al. after eight years?

Identification memory shows no retention Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon explains the tendency of adults to remember past experiences associated with their adolescence?

Reminiscence bump Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about spaced learning versus mass learning is correct?

Spaced learning allows for better memory consolidation over time. Signup and view all the answers

Which equation describes the retention of information according to Wixted?

$y = ax^b$ Signup and view all the answers

According to the forgetting curve, how does information retention change over time?

Information is primarily lost quickly, with gradual decline later. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Memory Processes

Memory involves acquiring, storing, retrieving, and retaining information.
Explicit (declarative) memories are expressed verbally.
Implicit (non-declarative) memories are not expressed verbally; these include priming, conditioning, and procedural memories (e.g., walking, swimming).
Memory processes include encoding (creating), retention (storing), and retrieval (accessing).
Memory examination methods include free recall, cued recall, and recognition.
Memory tasks have three phases: learning/encoding, consolidation/retention, and retrieval/testing.

Memory Models

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model (1968) outlines three memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
Sensory memory briefly holds incoming information. Unattended information is lost. Visual (iconic) and auditory (echoic) sensory memory exist.
Short-term memory (STM) temporarily holds information (seconds to minutes). Rehearsal is crucial. STM has limited capacity. Information not rehearsed is lost.
Long-term memory (LTM) stores information for extended periods. LTM has unlimited capacity. Information can be lost if not retrieved regularly.
Information in sensory and STM is episodic, recording when and where the information was learned.
Information in LTM can be episodic or semantic. Semantic memory stores information without remembering its context.
The serial position effect (primacy and recency effects) suggests that rehearsal is important for transferring information from STM to LTM.
- Primacy effect: Better recall of items at the beginning of a list, due to rehearsal and transfer to LTM.
- Recency effect: Better recall of items at the end of a list, due to being in STM at recall. Recency effect disappears with delay.
Neurophysiological evidence supports this modal memory. Patients with medial temporal lobe (MTL) damage have intact STM but cannot transfer new information to LTM (anterograde amnesia).
Other research suggests models of STM need refinement due to different components of STM.

Sensory Memory (Iconic Memory)

Iconic memory (visual) holds a large amount of visual information briefly. Duration is very short.
Capacity and duration are critical aspects of iconic memory.
Jevon (1963) and Averbach (1963) investigated iconic memory capacity. Picture complexity and presentation speed limit it (e.g., up to 8 items).
Sperling (1960) demonstrated iconic memory's large capacity and rapid decay (masking/interference). The image is initially available, fading quickly.
Langaman et al. (2003) suggested longer iconic memory durations (1600ms).
Issues linger if sensory memory is a separate system or part of STM.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

STM tasks include digit span (verbal) and Corsi (visual-spatial).
Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1970): STM is complex, with multiple components.
- Visuospatial Sketchpad: Temporary visual and spatial storage. Shows better performance for visual-spatial tasks (Brooks, 1967). Dual tasks (e.g., mental rotation, rotor pursuit) suggest separate visual spatial and verbal systems.
- Phonological Loop: Temporary storage for verbal information. Supported by phonological similarity effect (Conrad & Hull, 1964), and word-length effect (Baddeley et al., 1975).
- Central Executive: Control center, prioritizing information and allocating it to components. A supervisory attention system (Norman & Shallice, 1982), controlling behavior, and distributing attention.
- Episodic Buffer: Added component to account for LTM influence on STM. Accounts for chunking, and better sentences recall. Temp storage from multiple cognitive systems.
Alternative models of STM include embedded process, feature, and dual component model, as well as simpler models viewing STM and LTM as similar.

Long-Term Memory

Information remembered for more than a few minutes is long-term memory.
Explicit LTM includes episodic memory (events) and semantic memory (facts). Explicit initially is episodic, but over time becomes semantic as context is forgotten.
Implicit LTM includes procedural memory (skills), conditioning, and priming.
Ebbinghaus pioneered LTM research, measuring relearning times. Memory savings (faster relearning) decreases with time between learning sessions.
Spaced learning is superior to massed learning (one study session), and retrieval practice (testing) boosts recall more than additional learning.
The forgetting curve describes information retention/recall decline over time. Initial rapid forgetting is followed by a slower decline, with some information remaining.
Wixted (1990, 1997) modeled forgetting using a power equation (y=ax^-b).
Bahrick’s (1984) research on Spanish vocabulary learning revealed an initial rapid decline in retention, followed by stabilization.
Bahrick et al. (1975) studied professor-student face recognition. Recognition declined less than recollection (no choices/options); recognition followed the forgetting curve (rapid initial decline, followed by stabilization), whereas identification (no choices) decreased substantially over time.
Rubin and Wenzel (1996) demonstrated a power function’s accuracy in describing the decline of autobiographical memory.
Rubin et al. (1986) examined factors affecting autobiographical memory, including childhood amnesia (difficulty recalling early childhood) and the reminiscence bump (strong recall of adolescence/early adulthood).
Memory of language, faces, and personal experiences share similar forgetting trends to nonsense syllables.
Standing (1973) found higher recognition rates for pictures than words.
Konkle et al. (2010) discovered superior image recall when foils are from different categories. General concepts are retrieved more efficiently than detailed images.

Statistics

Statistics is the process of finding patterns in data.
Deterministic Model: Predictable outcomes. Same inputs always yield same outputs.
Probabilistic Model: Incorporates randomness; outcomes vary even with identical inputs.
Unsystematic Variation: Errors or anomalies due to uncontrollable factors (e.g., participant mood or intelligence).
Systematic Variation: Differences in performance caused by a manipulated independent variable (IV).
Descriptive Statistics: Summarize data characteristics (e.g., measures of central tendency, variability).
Inferential Statistics: Draw conclusions about populations from samples.

Scientific Methods

Experiments: Investigate cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating an independent variable (IV) while controlling other variables to observe the effect on a dependent variable (DV). Control and treatment groups are necessary.
Quasi-Experiments: Investigate cause-and-effect relationships, but participants are not randomly assigned to groups (e.g. due to existing characteristics). Control over extraneous variables is limited.
Correlational Methods: Investigate the association or relationship between variables. No manipulation, just observation.

Variables

Categorical Variables: Classify data into distinct groups or categories.
- Nominal: Categories without inherent order (e.g., hair color).
- Ordinal: Categories with a meaningful order (e.g., level of education).
Continuous Variables: Can take on any value (within a range) along a measurement scale.
- Interval: Intervals on a scale represent equal differences, but no meaningful zero point (e.g., temperature).
- Ratio: Intervals on a scale represent equal differences, and there is a meaningful zero point (e.g., height).
Independent Variable (IV): The manipulated factor hypothesized to affect the dependent variable.
Dependent Variable (DV): The measured factor that is expected to change due to the IV.

Experimental Designs

Between-Subjects Design: Different groups of participants experience different conditions.
- Weaknesses: Larger participant needed. Participant differences may impact results.
- Strengths: Reduces order effects, practice effects, and demand characteristics.
Within-Subjects Design: One group of participants experiences all levels of the IV.
- Weaknesses: Order effects, carryover effects.
- Strengths: Fewer participants needed, reduces participant variance.
Matched-Pairs Design: Participants are paired based on similar characteristics, and each member experiences different levels of the IV.
- Strengths: Reduces participant variance.
- Weaknesses: Time-consuming, smaller sample sizes.

Research Concepts

Extraneous Variables: Variables that could affect the results.
Confounding Variables: Variables systematically related to both the IV and DV, potentially obscuring the relationship being studied.
Hypothesis: Testable statement predicting the relationship between variables.
- Alternative Hypothesis: Predicts a difference or an effect (e.g., a pill enhances alertness).
- Null Hypothesis: Predicts no difference or no effect.
Statistical Significance: Results unlikely due to chance (typically p < .05).
Type I Error (False Positive): Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis.
Type II Error (False Negative): Incorrectly accepting the null hypothesis.
Validity: Accuracy and appropriateness of a study. Measures what it claims to measure and generalizes findings.
- Internal validity: How well an experiment establishes cause-and-effect.
- External validity: How well study results generalize to other populations and situations.
- Ecological validity: Results apply to real-world settings.
Reliability: Consistency and stability of a measurement.
- Internal reliability: Consistency of a measurement within itself.
- External reliability: Consistency across repeated measures.
- Inter-rater reliability: Agreement among different raters.

Data Analysis and Description

Discrete variables: Fixed values, often integers (e.g., number of correct answers).
Continuous variables: Can take on any value within a range (e.g., time, scores on an exam).
Central Tendency: Single value representing the center of a dataset.
- Mode: Most frequent score.
- Median: Middle value in ranked data.
- Mean: Average of all scores.
Measures of Spread: Describe data distribution around central tendency.
- Range: Difference between highest and lowest values.
- Interquartile Range (IQR): Difference between the 25th and 75th percentiles.
- Variance: Average squared difference from the mean value.
- Standard Deviation: Square root of the variance; measures spread in original units.
Standard Error of the Mean: Estimate of how much a sample mean differs from the true population mean.
z-scores: Indicate how many standard deviations a score is from the mean.
Normal Distribution: Symmetrical bell-shaped distribution.
Skewed Distribution: Scores are clustered at one end of the data; distribution is not symmetrical.

Statistical Tests

Kolmogorov-Smirnov test: Tests if a dataset is normally distributed.
Levene's test: Tests for homogeneity of variance (equal variance between groups).

Correlation

Correlation: Measures association or relationship between two variables.
Covariance: Measure of joint variability of two random variables.
- Magnitude: Strength of the relationship (between -1 and +1).
- Direction: Positive (both variables increase together) or negative (one increases, the other decreases).
Pearson's correlation coefficient: Used for continuous data, assumes linear relationship, and is parametric.
Spearman's rank correlation coefficient: Used for ranked or ordinal data.
Variance explained: Percentage of variation in one variable explained by another.
Partial Correlation: Correlation between two variables while controlling for the effect of another variable(s).
Zero-order correlation (bivariate correlation): Simple correlation between two variables.
First-order (partial) correlation: Controls for one variable.
Second-order (partial) correlation: Controls for two variables.

Regression

Regression: Predicts one variable (dependent variable) based on another variable (independent variable).
Linear regression: Predicts a linear relationship.
Multiple regression: Predicts a variable based on two or more independent variables.
Regression Reporting in APA Style: Includes type of analysis, relationship, significance, predictors, and their significance.

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Description

Explore the fundamentals of memory, including its processes, types, and models. This quiz covers explicit and implicit memories, the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, and various memory tasks and examination methods. Test your knowledge on how we acquire, store, and retrieve information.