Psychology: Learning and Conditioning

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Questions and Answers

What key concept defines Freud's understanding of the unconscious mind?

Repressed desires and fears that influence behavior.

How does Piaget's Preoperational Stage differ from the Concrete Operational Stage?

The Preoperational Stage involves symbolic thinking and egocentrism, while the Concrete Operational Stage involves logical thinking about concrete events.

Describe the focus of Wilhelm Wundt's contribution to psychology.

Wundt established psychology as a science, focusing on introspection to understand the mind's structure.

What are the main stages of Freud's Psychosexual Development theory?

Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, and Genital stages. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of behaviorism as proposed by John Watson and B.F. Skinner?

Observable behavior rather than internal mental states. Signup and view all the answers

Identify and briefly explain one of the pillars of psychology.

The Cognitive pillar studies mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. Signup and view all the answers

What is the essence of the Humanistic approach to psychology as introduced by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow?

It emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the potential for individuals to improve. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the significance of the concept of object permanence in Piaget's Sensorimotor Stage.

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

An unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers a response (e.g., food), while a conditioned stimulus is initially neutral but comes to trigger a response after association with the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., a bell). Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what is the effect of positive reinforcement?

Positive reinforcement increases behavior by adding something pleasant or rewarding after the desired behavior (e.g., giving a child candy for completing homework). Signup and view all the answers

What are the four key factors of observational learning as identified by Bandura?

The four key factors are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Signup and view all the answers

How does short-term memory (STM) differ from long-term memory (LTM)?

Short-term memory temporarily holds a limited amount of information (about 7±2 items) for around 20 seconds, while long-term memory has a vast capacity to store information for extended periods. Signup and view all the answers

What is retrograde amnesia, and what commonly causes it?

Retrograde amnesia is the loss of past memories, often resulting from brain injuries or psychological trauma. Signup and view all the answers

Can you explain the concept of semantic encoding in memory processing?

Semantic encoding involves converting information into a meaningful format, which facilitates better retention and retrieval in long-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

List two types of explicit memory and give an example of each.

The two types of explicit memory are semantic memory (e.g., facts about history) and episodic memory (e.g., personal experiences like a birthday party). Signup and view all the answers

Identify and describe one type of intelligence from Howard Gardner's multiple intelligences theory.

Logical-Mathematical intelligence refers to the ability to use logic and mathematical skills effectively, often seen in scientists and mathematicians. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning and Conditioning

Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Learning occurs through associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke a conditioned response.
Key Terms:
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
- Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to the UCS (e.g., salivation).
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus, now triggers a response (e.g., a bell after association).
- Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to the CS (e.g., salivation to the bell).
Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Learning occurs through consequences.
- Reinforcement increases behavior (positive: adding something desirable, negative: removing something aversive).
- Punishment decreases behavior (positive: adding something aversive, negative: removing something desirable).
Observational Learning (Bandura): Learning by observing others. The Bobo Doll experiment demonstrated this. Key factors include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.

Memory

Encoding: Converting sensory input into a usable form for memory storage.
- Types include visual (images), acoustic (sounds), and semantic (meaning).
Storage: Retaining encoded information over time. Short-term memory (STM) has a limited capacity (7 ± 2 items), while long-term memory (LTM) has a vast capacity.
Retrieval: Recalling stored information when needed.

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory: Brief, immediate recording of sensory information (e.g., a flash of lightning).
Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporarily holds limited information (7±2 items) for about 20 seconds.
- Rehearsal is crucial for transferring information to long-term memory.
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Contains vast amounts of information.
- Explicit Memory: Facts and experiences (semantic and episodic).
- Implicit Memory: Skills and conditioned responses (e.g., riding a bike).

Amnesia

Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories, often caused by brain injury.
Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories, seen in Alzheimer's disease, for example.

Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner's theory proposes eight distinct intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.

History of Psychology

Psychology's roots lie in philosophy, with figures like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.
Wilhelm Wundt established psychology as a science, using introspection.
William James focused on mental processes' role in adaptation.
Sigmund Freud explored the unconscious mind's effect on behavior.
Behaviorism, led by John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner, emphasised observable behavior.
Humanism, with Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasized human potential.

Freud's Levels of Consciousness

Conscious: Thoughts of which we are aware.
Preconscious: Easily accessible memories.
Unconscious: Repressed desires and fears impacting behavior.

Psychosexual Development (Freud)

Freud's stages describe how pleasure is derived from different body parts over time: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.

Cognitive Development (Piaget)

Sensorimotor (0–2): Interaction with the environment through the senses.
Preoperational (2–7): Use of symbols and language; egocentrism.
Concrete Operational (7–11): Logical thinking on concrete events (conservation).
Formal Operational (12+): Abstract thinking.

Schools of Psychology

Structuralism: Focused on the mind's structure (Wundt).
Functionalism: Examined functions of mental activities (James).
Behaviorism: Emphasised observable behaviour (Watson, Skinner).
Psychoanalysis: Explored unconscious processes (Freud).
Humanism: Focused on personal growth and potential (Rogers, Maslow).
Cognitive Psychology: Investigated thought processes and memory.

Pillars of Psychology

Biological: Examines brain structures and chemicals' influence on behavior.
Cognitive: Studies mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving.
Developmental: Focuses on changes throughout the lifespan.
Social: Examines how society influences behavior.
Clinical: Aims to understand and treat psychological disorders.

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Description

Explore key concepts of learning theories including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Understand important terms like unconditioned stimulus and reinforcement as developed by Pavlov, Skinner, and Bandura. Test your knowledge with this quiz and solidify your understanding of these fundamental psychological principles.