Psychology: Classical and Operant Conditioning

Learning Concepts in Psychology

• Classical Conditioning: Learning to associate two stimuli, anticipating events based on these associations.
• Operant Conditioning: Behavior is influenced by the consequences it produces—strengthened by reinforcers or weakened by punishers.

Responses and Stimuli

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus (CS) that was previously neutral.
• Unconditioned Response (UR): A natural, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus (US).
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that triggers an unconditioned response naturally.
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): An initially neutral stimulus that, after pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, elicits a conditioned response.

Reinforcement Types

• Primary Reinforcer: An intrinsic reward satisfying a basic biological need (e.g., food).
• Secondary Reinforcer: Initially neutral stimuli that gain value when associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., praise).
• Conditioned Reinforcer: Gains reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer.

Reinforcement Principles

• Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior toward a desired outcome through successive approximations.
• Positive Reinforcer: Increases the likelihood of a response when presented after the behavior.
• Negative Reinforcer: Increases behavior likelihood by removing an unpleasant stimulus.
• Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcing only some responses, leading to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

Timing of Reinforcement

• Immediate Reinforcement: Provided right after the desired behavior (e.g., immediate rewards).
• Delayed Reinforcement: Reward comes after a lapse of time (e.g., monthly paychecks).

Learning Mechanisms

• Cognitive Map: Mental representation of spatial relationships, exemplified by rats navigating a maze.
• Latent Learning: Knowledge that becomes apparent when there is incentive to demonstrate it.

Motivational Theory

• Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in behavior for its own sake.
• Extrinsic Motivation: Performing behavior to achieve external rewards or avoid punishment.

Learning Outcomes and Effects

• Associative Learning: Learning that two events occur together, either between stimuli (classical conditioning) or between behavior and consequences (operant conditioning).
• Observational Learning: Learning that occurs by observing the behaviors of others, referred to as models.

Punishment Dynamics

• Positive Punishment: Introducing an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior to reduce its occurrence.
• Negative Punishment: Removing a stimulus, weakening the behavior following it.

Behavior Patterns

• Pro-social Behavior: Actions intended to benefit others, contrasting with antisocial behaviors, which are detrimental (e.g., effects seen in Bandura's Bobo doll experiment).
• Overjustification Effect: Decrease in intrinsic motivation when external incentives are introduced.

Card References for Key Theorists

• B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning concepts, emphasizing external influences over internal states.
• E.L. Thorndike: Known for the Law of Effect, stating that behaviors followed by consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Reinforcement Schedules

• Fixed Ratio Reinforcement: Reinforced after a set number of responses.
• Variable Ratio Reinforcement: Reinforcement provided after an unpredictable number of responses.
• Fixed Interval Reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed.
• Variable Interval Reinforcement: Reinforcement provided after unpredictable time intervals.

Additional Learning Concepts

• Habituation: Decreased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.
• Taste Aversion: Learned avoidance of a specific food associated with illness.
• Discrimination: Ability to differentiate between conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of the conditioned response after a period without exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
• Generalization: Tendency to respond similarly to similar stimuli.