Psychology: Types of learning

Learning

• Learning is a change of behavior resulting from experience.

Types of Learning

• Non-associative learning involves learning about a stimulus in the external world, like a sight or sound.
  • Habituation is getting used to a stimulus, such as a cashier getting used to scanning beeps.
  • Sensitization is increased sensitivity to a stimulus, such as being bothered by a tag on a shirt.
• Associative learning involves learning the relationships between two pieces of information.
  • Classical conditioning involves learning through associations, for example, music from scary movies eliciting anxiety,
  • Operant conditioning involves learning through consequences, for example, studying for a test leading to better grades.
• Learning by watching others involves observational learning.
  • Observational learning includes mimicking others, modeling behavior, and vicarious conditioning (learning from others' experiences)
  • An example is like younger siblings watching older siblings and deciding whether to do something, like getting in trouble.

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov discovered the four components of classical conditioning by studying dogs salivating at the sight of food bowls.
• Four steps in classical conditioning:
  • Unconditioned stimulus.
  • Unconditioned response.
  • Conditioned stimulus.
  • Conditioned response.
• In the Little Albert experiment, Little Albert was conditioned to fear white, fluffy things after being scared by a bunny.
  • This fear generalized to other similar stimuli
  • This demonstrated counterconditioning, exposing someone to a scary thing during an enjoyable activity.

Stimulus

• Stimulus generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response, like mistaking a doorbell on TV for the real doorbell.
• Stimulus discrimination is when only one of two similar stimuli is associated with the unconditioned stimulus, such as distinguishing between gunshots and fireworks.

Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition is the gradual formation of an association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
• Extinction is the weakening of the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
• Spontaneous recovery is when a previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again.

Operant Conditioning

• Operant conditioning is a learning process where the consequences of an action determine the likelihood of it being performed in the future.
• Operant conditioning was developed by Thorndike, who used a cat in a box with a food bowl outside.

Elements of Operant Conditioning

• Positive reinforcement involves adding a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior being repeated, e.g., receiving a pay raise for working harder.
• Negative reinforcement involves removing a stimulus to increase the probability of a behavior being repeated, e.g., taking a pill to get rid of a headache.
• Positive punishment involves adding a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior recurring, e.g., receiving a speeding ticket.
• Negative punishment involves removing a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior recurring, e.g., teenager loses driving privileges for speeding.

Reinforcement

• Partial reinforcement involves behavior being occasionally reinforced and is more common in real-world situations, like gambling slot machines.
• Shaping is reinforcing behaviors that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior, e.g., teaching a dog to surf.

Token Economy

• Token economies involve earning tokens (secondary reinforcers) for completing tasks and losing tokens for bad behavior.
• Token economies are often used in elementary schools with behavior charts, stickers, or teacher's money.

Observational Learning

• Observational learning occurs when an individual acquires or changes a behavior after viewing at least one performance of that behavior.
• The Bobo doll study taught us kids can pick up things, such as learning to cuss from hearing it
• Observational learning is a powerful adaptive tool and a social learning theory.

Memory

• Encoding is the processing of information so that it can be stored.
• Storage is the retention of encoded representations over time.
• Retrieval is the act of recalling or remembering stored information when it is needed.

Memory Stores

• Sensory Storage:

• Lets perceptions appear to be unified wholes (Function of storage).

• Information is encoded as it is experienced: visual, auditory, taste, smell, and touch (Encoding for storage).

• Duration of storage is Up to a second, depending on the sense

• Capacity of storage is Vast due to huge amount of sensory input.

• Short-term Storage:

  • Maintains information for immediate use (Function of storage).
  • Information is Primarily auditory & Also visual and semantic (Encoding for storage).
  • Information lasts for About 20 seconds & Indefinite with working memory manipulation of items (Duration of storage).
  • Can hold About 7 items, plus or minus 2 & Using working memory aids capacity (Capacity of storage).

• Long-term Storage:

  • Stores information for access and use at a later time (Function of storage),
  • Information is Primarily semantic, Also visual and auditory & Dual coding provides richest encoding (Encoding of storage).
  • Storage has Probably unlimited duration
  • Storage has Probably unlimited capacity

Implicit vs Explicit Memory

• Implicit memory does not require conscious effort and often cannot be verbally described.
• Explicit memory requires conscious effort and often can be verbally described.

Chunking Memory

• Chunking uses working memory to organize information into meaningful units to make it easier to remember.
• For example when reading a long, difficult word, it can be easier to chunk the words into smaller pieces in order to make it easier to read.

Working Memory

• Working Memory can hold 7 ± 2 which means people can remember about seven items (give or take two).

Amnesia

• Retrograde: A condition in which people lose the ability to access memories they had before a brain injury.
• Only new memories, no old memories
• Anterograde amnesia: A condition in which people lose the ability to form new memories after experiencing a brain injury.
• Only old memories, no new memories
• H.M was unable to store/retain new information because of a botched surgery in his brain

Maintaining Memories

• Explicit memory is the system for long-term storage of conscious memories that can be verbally described
  • Includes Episodic memory and Semantic memory
• Implicit memory does not require conscious effort, often cannot be verbally described.
  • Includes Classical conditioning and Procedural memory.

Forgetting

• Reasons for forgetting include Interference, Blocking, and Absentmindedness.
• Proactive interference:
  • When access to newer memories is impaired by older memories
  • People can't remember their new phone number because they're still thinking about the old one.
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is an example of blocking.
• Procedural memory involves motor skills and behavioral habits, and includes Classical conditioning
  • For example remembering how to play piano Distortion
• Distortion occurs due to memory bias, flashbulb memories, misattribution, suggestibility, and false memories.

Motivation

• Motivation is a motivation, the desire to reach a goal or aspiration in life or to reach a certain stage in your life.
• Factors that motivate people's behavior
  • Satisfaction of needs (Ex: Taking a second job to help pay the bills because your full time job doesn't guarantee enough money for food and housing.
  • Drive reduction (Ex: Putting on a sweater to satisfy your need for warmth. Once you feel warmed, the drive is reduced.
  • Optimal level of arousal (Ex: preferring calmness, staying in and watch movies in the evening.
  • Pleasure principle (Ex: Ordering chocolate cake even though you're full because you know how good it will taste.
  • Incentives (Ex: Knowing you can win the tennis championship motivating you to practice.
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:
  • Self-actualization (achieving personal dreams & aspirations
  • Esteem (Good self-reputation
  • Belonging and love (Acceptance, Friendship
  • Safety (Security, protection from threats & freedom
  • Physiological (Food, water, warmth, oxygen & sleep
• Intrinsic motivation
  • Performing an activity because of the value or pleasure associated with that activity
  • rather than for an apparent external goal or purpose
• Extrinsic motivation:
  • Desire to perm an activity to achieve an external goal that activity is directed toward.

Achievement Motivation

• The goal themselves
• Our sense of self-efficacy
• Our ability to delay gratification
• Grit - willingness to work at it
• Emotions
• Emotions: An immediate specific, negative or positive response to environmental events or internal thoughts.

Emotion Regulation

• Thought suppression
• Rumination - overthinking
• Positive reappraisal - positive thinking
• Humor - Dark humor
• Distraction - distracting you from what's stressing you
• Affect-as-Information Theory:
• People use their current moods to make decisions, judgments, and appraisals, even if they do not know what caused their emotions.
• Display rules: Indicate what emotions to show. (Ex: men crying while watching a movie.

Health & Well-Being

• Biopsychosocial Model of integrative care:
  • Biological
  • Physical health
  • Immune/stress response
  • Social & Environment
  • Peer group
  • Family circumstances
  • Psychological
  • Coping skills
  • Social skills

Stress

• Stress is a group of behavioral, mental, and physical processes occurring, when events match or exceed the organism's ability to respond in a healthy way.
• Life stressors overwhelm or cause stress to an organism or can be harmful to our health
• Daily hassles can be something like doing chores, but they're not threatening.
• General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):
  • Alarm
  • Resistance
  • Exhaustion

Stress Response

• Tend-and-befriend:
  • Affiliating with others might provide additional protection & support.
• Fight: Facing any perceived threat aggressively.
• Flight: Running away from the danger.
• Freeze: Unable to move or act against a threat.
• Fawn: Immediately acting to try to please to avoid any conflict.

Other Factors

• Factors include commitment, challenge and control
• Positive Psychology include positive emotion and pleasure, engagement in life and a meaningful life
• Coping strategies include social/ family support, life balance, good nutrition and set goals