Psychology Introduction and Theoretical Perspectives

Introduction and Study Methods

• Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior.
• Research methods include experiments, surveys, observations, and clinical studies.
• Critical thinking involves analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information to form reasoned judgments and decisions. It includes being open-minded, questioning assumptions, considering multiple perspectives, and using evidence and logic.

Theoretical Perspectives

• Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic theory focuses on the unconscious mind and early childhood experiences in shaping personality and behavior.
• Behaviorism emphasizes environmental factors (rewards and punishments) in shaping behavior through conditioning.
• Gestalt psychology highlights the organization of sensory information in shaping our experience of the world.
• Humanistic psychology emphasizes individual experience, personal growth, and self-actualization in shaping behavior.
• Cognitive psychology focuses on mental processes (perception, memory, thought) in shaping behavior.

Research Methods

• Hypothesis: a proposed explanation for a phenomenon.
• Theory: A well-supported explanation acquired through the scientific method and tested repeatedly.
• Independent variable: the variable manipulated by the researcher.
• Dependent variable: the variable measured or observed.
• Experimental group: The group exposed to the independent variable.
• Control group: The group not exposed to the independent variable that serves as a comparison.
• Correlation: a statistical relationship where changes in one variable associate with changes in another. (positive or negative)
• Correlational study: examines relationships without manipulating variables.
• Experiment: manipulates the independent variable to observe the effect on the dependent variable.
• Surveys: collect data through questionnaires, interviews, or online surveys.
• Observational studies: observe and record behavior without intervention.
• Case studies: in-depth examinations of individuals, groups, or phenomena.

Neuroscience and Biological Foundations

• Neurons transmit information throughout the body.
• Dendrites receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors.
• Axon transmits signals away from the cell body.
• Myelin sheath speeds up signal transmission.
• Synapse is the gap between neurons where neurotransmitters transmit signals.
• The cell body processes and integrates signals received from dendrites.
• Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that transmit signals across the synapse.
• Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and spinal cord.
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes nerves throughout the body.
• Somatic Nervous System controls voluntary movements, and sensory perception.
• Autonomic Nervous System regulates involuntary functions such as heart rate and digestion, including the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
• The endocrine system regulates bodily functions through hormones and glands.

Sensation and Perception

• Sensation is the input from sensory receptors that about the physical world.
• Transduction is the conversion of physical energy into neural signals that the brain can process.
• Bottom-up processing analyzes sensory information to build a perception.
• Top-down processing uses previous knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information.
• Absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of a stimulus that can be detected half the time.
• Difference threshold is the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected.
• Sensory adaptation is the reduction in sensitivity to a constant stimulus.
• Kinesthetic sense provides information about the position and movement of the body.
• Vestibular sense provides information about balance and spatial orientation.

Learning

• Classical conditioning: associating two stimuli.
• Operant conditioning: associating behavior with consequences (reward or punishment).
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
• Unconditioned response (UCR): natural response to a UCS.
• Neutral stimulus (NS): stimulus that doesn't naturally trigger a response.
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): a previously neutral stimulus that now triggers a response due to association with UCS.
• Conditioned response (CR): learned response to the CS.
• Stimulus generalization: responding to similar stimuli.
• Stimulus discrimination: differentiating between similar but distinct stimuli.
• Extinction refers to the gradual weakening of a conditioned response.
• Spontaneous recovery: reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response.
• Shaping is a technique for reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.

Memory

• Sensory memory: holds sensory information for a very short time.
• Short-term memory holds information briefly and has limited capacity.
• Long-term memory holds information for a long time and has large capacity.
• Chunking is a strategy to improve short-term memory by organizing items into groups.
• Episodic memory: stores personal experiences.
• Semantic memory: stores general knowledge.
• Procedural memory: stores how to perform actions.
• Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory.
• Elaborative rehearsal: connecting new information to existing knowledge.
• Context-dependent memory: retrieval is better in the context where information was learned.
• Retrograde amnesia: loss of memory for events that occurred before the trauma.
• Anterograde amnesia: loss of memory for events that occur after the trauma.
• Blocking: temporary inability to retrieve information.
• Misattribution: assigning a memory to the wrong source.
• Suggestibility: incorporating misleading information into memories.

Lifespan Development

• Teratogens are environmental factors that can cause developmental problems in a fetus (e.g., alcohol, tobacco, drugs).
• Attachment theory describes enduring emotional bonds between individuals.
• Stages of cognitive development (Piaget): Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete operational, and Formal operational.
• Principle of conservation is to understand that quantity or properties stay the same despite changes in shape or appearance.
• Abstract thinking is the ability to think about ideas, concepts, and hypothetical situations.

Personality

• Trait theory identifies and measures consistent patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion.
• Humanistic theory emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and subjective experience.
• Biological perspective: personality is influenced by genetic factors and brain chemistry.
• Social-cognitive perspective: personality is shaped by the interaction of personal, situational, and behavioral factors.
• Unconditional positive regard is a key concept in humanistic therapies, emphasizing acceptance and empathy.
• Locus of control is the degree to which people believe they control their environment and its outcomes.

Psychological Disorders

• DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition) is a standardized classification system for mental disorders.
• Diathesis-stress model: explains the interaction of biological and environmental factors in developing disorders.
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): characterized by excessive and persistent worry.
• Panic disorder is characterized by unexpected and recurrent panic attacks.
• Specific phobias: intense and persistent fear of a specific object or situation.
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): characterized by intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions).
• Major depressive episode: involves persistent low mood and loss of interest.
• Learned Helplessness: a belief that one has little or no control over the outcome of situations.
• Bipolar disorder: characterized by episodes of depression and mania or hypomania.
• Schizophrenia: characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, and negative symptoms.
• Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD)
• Antisocial Personality Disorder (ASPD)

Therapy

• Biological therapies focus on medication and other biological interventions to treat psychological disorders.
• Psychotherapy is a conversation-based therapy to help individuals understand and manage their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.
• Psychoanalysis/psychodynamic therapy; exploration of the unconscious mind and past experiences.
• Humanistic therapy focuses on self-awareness and self-acceptance.
• Behavior therapies focus on changing maladaptive behaviors using learning principles.

Explore the fundamentals of psychology, including its scientific methods and various theoretical perspectives. This quiz covers critical thinking, psychoanalytic theory, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology, and more to help you understand how these concepts shape human behavior and personality.